Class 11 Fine Art Notes Chapter 5 (Chapter 5) – An Introduction to Indian Art Part-I Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 5: Later Mural Traditions. This chapter is crucial as it shows the continuity and evolution of India's rich painting tradition after the Gupta period, particularly after the masterpieces at Ajanta. Understanding these regional developments is important for many competitive exams.

Chapter 5: Later Mural Traditions - Detailed Notes

1. Introduction

• The tradition of mural painting, which reached a zenith during the Gupta period (as seen in Ajanta), continued in various parts of India between the 6th and 12th centuries CE and even later in some regions.
• These later murals show distinct regional styles, influenced by local artistic idioms, patronage, and religious themes.
• While Ajanta's influence is visible, regional schools developed unique characteristics in terms of line, form, colour palette, and thematic representation.
• Major centres flourished under the patronage of dynasties like the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas, Vijayanagara rulers, and Nayakas, as well as in regions like Kerala.

2. Badami Murals (Karnataka, Chalukya Period)

• Patronage: Early Western Chalukyas of Badami. Specifically, paintings in Cave No. 4 are associated with the patronage of Mangalesha (late 6th century CE), brother of Kirtivarman I. An inscription here dates back to 578 CE.
• Location: Cave No. 4 (Vaishnava Cave) at Badami, Karnataka. Paintings are found on the vaulted roof and walls.
• Themes: Primarily Vaishnava themes, depicting scenes related to Vishnu. Palace scenes, possibly depicting King Kirtivarman I seated in the palace enjoying music and dance, are famous. Celestial figures like Indra on his elephant Airavata and Vidyadhara couples are also depicted.
• Style:
  • Considered an extension of the Ajanta tradition but with emerging regional variations.
  • Softer modelling compared to Ajanta, fluid lines, graceful figures.
  • Distinct facial features: Large socketed eyes, protruding lower lip, sometimes half-closed eyes.
  • Sinuous lines, elegant poses, rhythmic movement.
  • Faces are often shown in profile or three-quarter profile.
• Technique: Tempera technique on a dry plaster surface (fresco-secco).

3. Murals under Pallava, Pandya, and Chola Rule (Tamil Nadu)

• A. Pallava Period (c. 600-900 CE):

  • Patronage: Pallava kings, known for their rock-cut temples and structural shrines.
  • Locations:
    • Kanchipuram: Kailasanatha Temple and Vaikunthaperumal Temple. Paintings survive in fragments, often in niches behind the main Shivalinga.
    • Panamalai: Talagirishvara Temple. A fragment depicting Parvati is notable.
    • Sittanavasal (Cave Temple): While often associated primarily with the Pandyas, some scholars suggest Pallava influence or patronage during certain periods. (See Pandya section for details).
  • Themes: Primarily Shaiva themes (e.g., Somaskanda – Shiva, Uma, and child Skanda), divine figures, guardians (dwarapalas).
  • Style:
    • Elongated figures, rhythmic lines.
    • Increased ornamentation compared to earlier periods.
    • Rounded faces, large eyes.
    • Use of strong lines and vibrant colours (though much has faded).
    • Shows continuity from Badami but with distinct Pallava characteristics.

• B. Pandya Period (c. 6th - 10th centuries CE):

  • Patronage: Pandya rulers, contemporaries and rivals of the Pallavas.
  • Locations:
    • Sittanavasal (Jain Cave Temple): Most famous site for Pandya murals (though dating and patronage are sometimes debated, often attributed to the 7th-9th centuries). Paintings are found on ceilings, beams, and pillars.
    • Tirumalaipuram Caves: Also contain remnants of Pandya murals.
  • Themes (Sittanavasal):
    • Jain themes: Samavasarana (preaching hall of Tirthankaras), Tirthankaras, monks.
    • Famous ceiling painting of a Lotus Pond (Tank Scene): Depicts figures collecting lotuses, animals (elephants, buffaloes, geese), fish, and blooming flowers with remarkable naturalism and fluidity. Symbolises the Jain concept of Khatika-bhumi.
    • Dancing figures (apsaras) on pillars.
  • Style (Sittanavasal):
    • Fine lines, expressive figures, subtle modelling.
    • Vibrant colour palette (black, white, yellow, green, red).
    • Figures have large eyes and distinct facial features.
    • Considered a masterpiece of South Indian painting.
  • Technique: Fresco-secco (tempera on dry plaster).

• C. Chola Period (c. 850-1279 CE):

  • Patronage: Chola emperors, known for magnificent bronze sculptures and grand temples.
  • Locations:
    • Thanjavur (Tanjore): Brihadeshwara Temple (Rajarajeswara Temple), built by Rajaraja Chola I (completed 1010 CE). Murals are found in the circumambulatory passage (pradakshina patha) around the sanctum.
    • Kanchipuram: Kailasanatha Temple (Chola paintings over earlier Pallava layers).
    • Tiruvarur: Thyagaraja Swamy Temple.
    • Tirumalaipuram: Later additions.
  • Themes (Brihadeshwara):
    • Shaiva themes: Shiva as Tripurantaka (destroyer of three cities), Nataraja (cosmic dancer), Dakshinamurti.
    • Narratives: Stories of Sundaramurti Nayanar, Cheraman Perumal.
    • Portraits: Rajaraja Chola I with his guru Karuvur Devar.
    • Celestial figures, dancers, musicians.
  • Style (Brihadeshwara):
    • Monumental scale, reflecting the grandeur of the temple.
    • Strong, firm lines; less fluidity than Ajanta but powerful.
    • Emphasis on rhythmic movement, especially in dance scenes (Nataraja).
    • Elaborate depiction of costumes and jewellery.
    • Discovery: Chola paintings were found beneath a later layer of Nayaka paintings (16th century).
  • Technique (Brihadeshwara): Debated, but often considered closer to true fresco (fresco-buono) where pigments are applied on wet plaster, allowing better integration, though elements of tempera might also be present. This differs significantly from the earlier fresco-secco technique.

4. Vijayanagara Murals (c. 1336-1646 CE)

• Patronage: Vijayanagara rulers.
• Locations:
  • Hampi (Karnataka): Virupaksha Temple (ceiling of the mandapa in front of the main shrine).
  • Lepakshi (Andhra Pradesh): Veerabhadra Temple (extensive murals on ceilings and walls), built by feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire (Virupanna Nayaka and Viranna) in the 16th century.
• Themes:
  • Religious narratives: Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranic stories (Shiva legends like Kiratarjuniya, manifestations of Vishnu).
  • Incarnations of Vishnu (Dashavatara).
  • Dynastic portraits, depictions of patrons (Virupanna and his family at Lepakshi).
  • Secular scenes, processions.
• Style:
  • Continuation of earlier traditions but with distinct characteristics.
  • Emphasis on profile faces (ekachashma) with large eyes.
  • Figures often appear flat, lacking depth/volume.
  • Strong outlines, often in black.
  • Vibrant colour palette, often filled flatly within outlines.
  • Elaborate costumes, headgear, and jewellery depicted in detail.
  • Panels often depict continuous narratives.
  • Decline in the refinement and subtlety seen in earlier periods (like Ajanta or Chola), but dynamic and decorative.
  • Lepakshi murals are particularly known for their scale and narrative vigour.

5. Kerala Murals (c. 16th - 19th centuries CE)

• Patronage: Local rulers, feudatories, temple authorities.
• Locations: Found on the walls of temples and palaces. Notable examples:
  • Mattancherry Palace (Kochi/Cochin): Extensive Ramayana and Puranic scenes.
  • Vadakkunnathan Temple (Thrissur)
  • Padmanabhapuram Palace (near Thiruvananthapuram)
  • Krishnapuram Palace (Kayamkulam)
  • Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor, Panayannarkavu temples.
• Themes: Primarily Hindu mythology – Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, Shaiva and Vaishnava themes, local legends.
• Style:
  • Developed a distinct regional idiom, influenced by Vijayanagara/Nayaka styles but also by local artistic traditions like Kalamezhuthu (ritual floor drawing).
  • Vibrant colours: Predominantly ochre-red, yellow-ochre, bluish-green, white, and black (Panchavarna).
  • Stylized figures: Voluptuous forms, exaggerated features, elaborate ornamentation.
  • Emphasis on expression (Bhava/Rasa).
  • Compositions are often dense and crowded.
  • Strong, bold lines.
  • Human and divine figures depicted according to iconographic conventions.
• Technique: Generally fresco-secco (tempera on dry wall).

Conclusion:

The later mural traditions demonstrate the vibrant continuity and regional diversification of Indian painting. From the Chalukyan echoes of Ajanta at Badami to the distinct styles developed under the Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas, Vijayanagara rulers, and in Kerala, these murals provide invaluable insights into the religious beliefs, social life, and artistic sensibilities of different periods and regions.

Now, let's test your understanding with some Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) based on this chapter.

MCQs:

1. The famous mural depicting palace scenes, possibly featuring King Kirtivarman I, is found in which cave complex associated with the Early Western Chalukyas?
   a) Ellora Caves
   b) Ajanta Caves
   c) Badami Caves
   d) Elephanta Caves

2. The exquisite painting of a 'Lotus Pond' (tank scene) teeming with life is a celebrated mural primarily associated with which site and dynasty?
   a) Kanchipuram, Pallava
   b) Thanjavur, Chola
   c) Lepakshi, Vijayanagara
   d) Sittanavasal, Pandya

3. The Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur features significant Chola murals depicting themes like:
   a) Jain Tirthankaras and Samavasarana
   b) Scenes from the Ramayana only
   c) Shiva as Tripurantaka, Nataraja, and portraits like Rajaraja Chola I
   d) Buddha's life stories and Jataka tales

4. Which of the following locations is renowned for its extensive Vijayanagara period murals, including large narrative panels from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and depictions of patrons like Virupanna?
   a) Badami
   b) Sittanavasal
   c) Lepakshi
   d) Panamalai

5. Kerala murals, found in places like Mattancherry Palace and Vadakkunnathan Temple, are characterized by:
   a) Monochromatic colour schemes and minimalist figures
   b) Use of true fresco technique and abstract designs
   c) Vibrant colours (Panchavarna), stylized voluptuous figures, and crowded compositions
   d) Predominantly Buddhist themes and realistic portraiture

6. Under the Pallava dynasty, mural paintings were executed in locations such as:
   a) Ajanta and Ellora
   b) Hampi and Lepakshi
   c) Kanchipuram (Kailasanatha Temple) and Panamalai
   d) Badami and Aihole

7. A common stylistic feature often observed in Vijayanagara murals, particularly at Lepakshi, is the depiction of faces:
   a) In full frontal view with serene expressions
   b) In strict profile (ekachashma) with large eyes
   c) With subtle shading and three-dimensional modelling
   d) In miniature scale with abstract features

8. The Chola murals in the Brihadeshwara Temple were notably discovered:
   a) In a newly excavated cave site
   b) Beneath a later layer of Nayaka period paintings
   c) Documented in ancient Chola inscriptions
   d) On the outer walls exposed to the elements

9. The Somaskanda theme (Shiva with Uma and Skanda) is frequently found in the murals belonging to which period/dynasty?
   a) Chalukya
   b) Pandya
   c) Pallava
   d) Vijayanagara

10. The technique predominantly used for murals at Badami, Sittanavasal, and later in Kerala is known as:
    a) Fresco-buono (true fresco)
    b) Oil painting on canvas
    c) Fresco-secco (tempera on dry plaster)
    d) Mosaic work

Answer Key:

1. c) Badami Caves
2. d) Sittanavasal, Pandya
3. c) Shiva as Tripurantaka, Nataraja, and portraits like Rajaraja Chola I
4. c) Lepakshi
5. c) Vibrant colours (Panchavarna), stylized voluptuous figures, and crowded compositions
6. c) Kanchipuram (Kailasanatha Temple) and Panamalai
7. b) In strict profile (ekachashma) with large eyes
8. b) Beneath a later layer of Nayaka period paintings
9. c) Pallava
10. c) Fresco-secco (tempera on dry plaster)

Study these notes carefully. Focus on the patrons, locations, key themes, and distinct stylistic features of each period. Good luck with your preparation!