Class 11 Fine Art Notes Chapter 7 (Chapter 7) – An Introduction to Indian Art Part-I Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 7: Indian Bronze Sculpture. This is a crucial topic, not just for understanding Indian art history but also frequently tested in competitive exams. Pay close attention to the details, periods, and iconic examples.

Chapter 7: Indian Bronze Sculpture - Detailed Notes for Exam Preparation

1. Introduction & Antiquity:

• Ancient Tradition: The art of bronze casting is ancient in India, with its roots going back to the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
• Earliest Masterpiece: The "Dancing Girl" from Mohenjo-daro (c. 2500 BCE) is the earliest known Indian metal sculpture, showcasing remarkable skill in modelling and casting. It was made using the Lost-Wax Technique.
• Bronze Composition: Bronze is primarily an alloy of Copper and Tin. Sometimes other metals like zinc or lead were added.
• Technique: The predominant method used throughout Indian history for bronze casting is the 'Cire Perdue' or Lost-Wax Process.

2. Chalcolithic Bronzes (c. 2000-1500 BCE):

• Daimabad Hoard (Maharashtra): A significant find of Chalcolithic bronzes. Includes heavy, solid cast figures like a chariot yoked to oxen, an elephant, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo. These demonstrate early metallurgical skills outside the IVC heartland.

3. Gupta and Post-Gupta Period Bronzes (c. 4th - 7th Centuries CE):

• Refinement: This era saw increased production and refinement of bronze sculptures.
• Influence: Gupta art, particularly the Sarnath school style (smooth bodies, graceful forms, transparent drapery), heavily influenced bronze casting.
• Key Examples:
  • Sultanganj Buddha (Bihar, c. 500-700 CE): A monumental standing Buddha image (over 7 feet tall), technically made of copper but often discussed with bronzes. Displays classic Gupta elegance, abhaya mudra. (Currently in Birmingham Museum, UK).
  • Phophnar Hoard (Madhya Pradesh): A cache of Buddha images showing Gupta stylistic influence.
  • Akota Hoard (Gujarat): Contains numerous Jain bronze images (Tirthankaras) from this period and later.

4. Himalayan Region Bronzes (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, Tibet - from 8th Century onwards):

• Influences: Drew heavily from Gupta, Post-Gupta, and later Pala traditions.
• Regional Styles: Developed distinct local characteristics.
• Kashmir: Known for sophisticated modelling, often featuring inlaid eyes and decorations using silver and copper. Depicted both Hindu deities (especially Vishnu forms) and Buddhist figures.
• Chamba (Himachal Pradesh): Famous for large-scale metal sculptures commissioned by local rulers for temples like Lakshana Devi Temple (Mahishasuramardini) and Narasimha Temple in Brahmaur.
• Nepal & Tibet: Continued the tradition, particularly Buddhist iconography, influenced by Pala art but developing unique, often highly ornate styles.

5. Pala Period Bronzes (Eastern India - Bihar & Bengal, c. 8th - 12th Centuries CE):

• Centres: Nalanda Mahavihara and Kurkihar (near Gaya) were major centres.
• Nalanda: As a great Buddhist university, it was a hub for producing high-quality bronzes.
• Style: Characterized by slender, graceful figures, highly polished surfaces, intricate details, often standing on double-lotus pedestals. Shows a blend of Gupta inheritance and distinct Pala stylization.
• Iconography: Primarily Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist deities: Buddha, Bodhisattvas (Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Maitreya), Tara, etc.
• Kurkihar Hoard: A large collection of Buddhist bronzes found here exemplifies the mature Pala style.

6. South Indian Bronzes - Chola Period (c. 9th - 13th Centuries CE):

• Zenith of Bronze Casting: This period represents the highest achievement in Indian bronze sculpture.
• Patronage: Flourished under the patronage of the powerful Chola emperors.
• Technique: Masterful execution of the lost-wax process (known as Madhuchehishthavidhana in Shilpa Shastras) for both solid and hollow casting.
• Function: Primarily created as Utsava Murtis – processional images used in temple festivals and rituals, representing the main deity in the sanctum.
• Iconography:
  • Shaivite Dominance: Shiva in various forms is most prominent:
    • Nataraja (Lord of Dance): The most famous and iconic Chola bronze. Represents Shiva's cosmic dance of creation, preservation, destruction, illusion, and grace. (See details below).
    • Other forms: Tripurantaka (destroyer of three cities), Somaskanda (Shiva, Uma, baby Skanda), Kalyanasundara (marriage of Shiva & Parvati).
  • Vaishnavite: Vishnu, Lakshmi, Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Hanuman.
  • Saints: Portraits of Shaiva Nayanmars (Appar, Sundarar, Sambandar, Manikkavachakar) and Vaishnava Alvars.
• Nataraja - Key Iconographic Details & Symbolism:
  • Four Arms: Upper right holds damaru (drum - sound of creation); Upper left holds agni (fire - destruction). Lower right in abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness/protection); Lower left points to uplifted foot (gaja hasta or danda hasta - signifies refuge and grace).
  • Legs: Right leg crushes the dwarf Apasmara Purusha (symbolizing ignorance/illusion); Left leg is raised in dance (bhujangatrasita or kunchita pada), symbolizing release/moksha.
  • Hair (Jata): Flying locks indicating the energy of the dance; holds Ganga, crescent moon.
  • Prabhamandala/Tiruvasi: The surrounding arch of flames, representing the cosmos and the cycle of birth and death.
• Stylistic Features: Unmatched grace, elegance, fluidity of movement, idealized divine forms, perfect balance, detailed ornamentation that enhances rather than overwhelms the form, smooth finish.
• Centres: Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, Swamimalai (artisans continue the tradition here today).

7. Vijayanagara & Nayaka Period Bronzes (South India, c. 14th - 17th Centuries CE):

• Continuation: Continued the Chola tradition but with noticeable changes.
• Portraiture: Increased emphasis on life-size portrait sculptures of rulers and donors (e.g., King Krishnadevaraya and his queens at Tirumala temple).
• Style: Often appears somewhat stiffer and more stylized compared to the Chola period's dynamism. Ornamentation can be more elaborate. Forms sometimes become more elongated.

8. The Lost-Wax Process (Cire Perdue / Madhuchishtavidhana):

• Step 1: Wax Model: An initial model is meticulously crafted from beeswax mixed with resin (from dammar tree) and nut oil.
• Step 2: Clay Mould: The wax model is coated with layers of fine alluvial clay (the 'investment'). Channels (sprues) for pouring metal and vents for air escape are incorporated.
• Step 3: Dewaxing: The clay-coated model is heated. The wax melts and flows out through the channels, leaving a hollow cavity inside the hardened clay mould (hence 'lost wax').
• Step 4: Casting: Molten bronze alloy is poured into the empty mould cavity through the sprues.
• Step 5: Cooling: The metal is allowed to cool and solidify completely.
• Step 6: Mould Removal: The outer clay mould is carefully broken away.
• Step 7: Finishing: The rough bronze cast is cleaned, excess metal removed, details are chiselled and refined, and the surface is polished. Inlays might be added if required.
  • Note: For larger sculptures, a hollow casting method is often used, where a clay core is left inside the wax model, reducing the amount of metal needed and the weight of the final sculpture.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

1. The 'Dancing Girl' figure, a prime example of early Indian metal casting, was discovered at which Indus Valley site?
   (a) Harappa
   (b) Mohenjo-daro
   (c) Lothal
   (d) Kalibangan

2. The lost-wax casting technique, widely used for Indian bronzes, is technically known as:
   (a) Tempera
   (b) Repoussé
   (c) Cire Perdue
   (d) Pietra Dura

3. The monumental Sultanganj Buddha, showcasing Gupta artistic influence, is primarily made of:
   (a) Bronze
   (b) Copper
   (c) Brass
   (d) Terracotta

4. Which historical period is considered the golden age for South Indian bronze sculpture, especially famous for Nataraja images?
   (a) Pallava
   (b) Gupta
   (c) Chola
   (d) Maurya

5. In the Chola Nataraja iconography, the damaru (drum) held in one of Shiva's hands symbolizes:
   (a) Destruction
   (b) Protection
   (c) Creation
   (d) Illusion

6. Nalanda and Kurkihar in Eastern India were prominent centres for bronze casting under the patronage of which dynasty?
   (a) Gupta
   (b) Pala
   (c) Chalukya
   (d) Kushan

7. The practice of inlaying bronze statues with silver and copper was a notable feature of sculptures from which region?
   (a) Chola South India
   (b) Pala Eastern India
   (c) Kashmir
   (d) Gupta Central India

8. What were the primary intended functions of the majority of Chola bronze sculptures?
   (a) Grave goods
   (b) Architectural elements
   (c) Personal adornments
   (d) Processional images (Utsava Murtis) for temples

9. The dwarf figure being trampled by Shiva Nataraja is known as Apasmara Purusha, representing:
   (a) Evil forces
   (b) Ignorance and ego
   (c) Cosmic energy
   (d) Time

10. Portrait sculptures in bronze, depicting rulers like Krishnadevaraya, became more common during which period in South India?
    (a) Early Chola
    (b) Pallava
    (c) Sangam
    (d) Vijayanagara

Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Understanding the regional variations, chronological development, key examples, and the technique itself is vital. Good luck with your preparation!