Class 11 Fine Art Notes Chapter 8 (Chapter 8) – An Introduction to Indian Art Part-I Book
Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 8: Later Mural Traditions. This is an important chapter that traces the evolution of mural painting in India after the classical period of Ajanta. Understanding these developments is crucial, especially the regional variations and patronage that shaped these art forms. Pay close attention to the locations, themes, and stylistic characteristics associated with each period.
Chapter 8: Later Mural Traditions - Detailed Notes
1. Introduction
- While the tradition of mural painting dates back to ancient times (Ajanta, Bagh), it continued to flourish in different parts of India between the 6th and 12th centuries CE and even later, particularly in South India.
- These later murals show regional variations in style, technique, and themes, often influenced by local dynasties and religious developments.
- Temples became the primary sites for these murals, with patronage coming from kings, nobles, and religious institutions.
2. Pallava Murals (c. 7th - 9th Century CE)
- Patronage: Pallava rulers, prominent in Tamil Nadu.
- Key Locations:
- Mandagapattu: Early Pallava cave temple; traces of painting indicate the continuation of the mural tradition.
- Panamalai: Paintings found in a rock-cut temple dedicated to Shiva. A famous fragment depicts a graceful figure of Parvati.
- Kanchipuram: Kailasanatha Temple and Vaikunthaperumal Temple.
- Kailasanatha Temple: Built by Rajasimha Pallava. Paintings found in the circumambulatory passage (pradakshina patha). Themes include Shiva as Somaskanda (Shiva, Uma, and baby Skanda), other forms of Shiva, and courtly life.
- Stylistic Features:
- Figures are often elongated, with rounded faces and distinct ornamentation.
- Emphasis on strong, rhythmic outlines.
- Colours are vibrant but limited compared to Ajanta.
- Show a transition from the Ajanta style but with distinct Pallava characteristics.
- Greater linearity and less emphasis on volume compared to Ajanta.
- Technique: Primarily Fresco-secco (painting on dry plaster).
3. Pandya Murals (c. 7th - 9th Century CE)
- Patronage: Pandya rulers, contemporaries of the Pallavas, ruling further south.
- Key Location:
- Sittanavasal: Rock-cut Jain temple near Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu. Famous for its ceiling and pillar paintings.
- Themes: Primarily Jain.
- Ceiling: Depicts a beautiful lotus pond (Samavasarana scene - a divine preaching hall of Tirthankaras) teeming with animals (elephants, buffaloes, geese), birds, fish, and human figures collecting lotuses. Symbolises the Jain concept of Khatika-bhumi.
- Pillars: Dancing figures, believed to be celestial apsaras. Faint image of the Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha and his queen.
- Stylistic Features:
- Fluid, graceful lines and rhythmic movement.
- Subtle modelling of figures.
- Vibrant colours like white, black, green, yellow, and orange-red.
- Figures have large eyes and expressive faces.
- Close stylistic affinity with Pallava art, but with distinct liveliness, especially in the depiction of nature and movement.
- Technique: Fresco-secco.
4. Chola Murals (c. 9th - 13th Century CE)
- Patronage: Chola dynasty, known for their magnificent temples.
- Key Locations:
- Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur: Built by Rajaraja Chola I (completed c. 1010 CE). Murals discovered in the circumambulatory passage, hidden under later Nayaka paintings.
- Narthamalai: Cave temple paintings.
- Tirumalaipuram: Rock-cut cave paintings.
- Themes (Brihadeeswara): Primarily Shaivite.
- Shiva in various forms: Tripurantaka (destroyer of three cities), Nataraja (cosmic dancer), Dakshinamurti.
- Narrative panels depicting stories related to Shiva.
- Portrait of Rajaraja Chola and his guru Karuvurar.
- Scenes of dancers, musicians, and celestial beings.
- Stylistic Features (Brihadeeswara):
- Monumental scale, matching the grandeur of the temple.
- Dynamic figures with strong outlines and expressive gestures.
- Rich ornamentation and detailed depiction of costumes.
- Narrative clarity and compositional skill.
- Considered a high point of South Indian mural painting, showing refinement and vigour.
- Continuation of Pallava/Pandya traditions but with greater sophistication and dynamism.
- Technique (Brihadeeswara): Notably, evidence of True Fresco (Buon Fresco) technique (painting on wet plaster) found here, alongside Fresco-secco. This allowed for greater durability and integration with the wall surface.
5. Vijayanagara Murals (c. 14th - 16th Century CE)
- Patronage: Vijayanagara Empire, which ruled over a vast area of South India.
- Key Locations:
- Lepakshi (Veerabhadra Temple): Andhra Pradesh. Extensive ceiling paintings commissioned by Virupanna Nayaka and Viranna, governors under Achyutaraya.
- Hampi (Virupaksha Temple): Karnataka. Ceiling paintings in the mandapa.
- Tiruparuttikunram: Jain site near Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. Paintings depicting lives of Tirthankaras.
- Themes:
- Hindu epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Puranic stories (e.g., Kiratarjuniya, manifestations of Shiva).
- Jain narratives (at Tiruparuttikunram).
- Portraits of patrons and royal figures (e.g., Virupanna and Viranna at Lepakshi).
- Secular scenes, processions, social life.
- Stylistic Features:
- Characterized by strong, angular outlines and flat application of colours.
- Profile or three-quarter profile faces with large, wide-open eyes.
- Elaborate costumes, textiles, and jewellery depicted in detail.
- Narrative panels often divided by decorative borders or architectural elements.
- Figures appear somewhat static compared to Chola murals, but the overall effect is vibrant and decorative.
- Decline in the classical grace seen earlier, but possesses a distinct regional identity.
- Technique: Primarily Fresco-secco.
6. Nayaka Murals (c. 17th - 18th Century CE)
- Patronage: Nayaka rulers, who succeeded the Vijayanagara Empire in regions like Madurai, Thanjavur, and Gingee.
- Key Locations:
- Thiruvarur (Thyagaraja Temple): Tamil Nadu.
- Srirangam (Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple): Tamil Nadu.
- Tiruvarankulam: Tamil Nadu.
- Chidambaram (Nataraja Temple): Tamil Nadu.
- Madurai (Meenakshi Temple): Tamil Nadu.
- Themes: Continuation of Puranic narratives, local legends (sthala puranas), depictions of Nayaka rulers, court scenes, processions.
- Stylistic Features:
- Extension and sometimes elaboration of the Vijayanagara style.
- Compositions can be crowded and highly detailed.
- Use of vibrant colours, often with bold outlines.
- Regional variations become more pronounced.
- Some Nayaka paintings (like those originally covering Chola murals in Thanjavur) show less refinement.
- Technique: Fresco-secco.
7. Kerala Murals (c. 16th - 18th Century CE onwards)
- Patronage: Local rulers, feudatories, and temple authorities in Kerala.
- Key Locations:
- Mattancherry Palace (Kochi/Cochin): Famous for Ramayana murals in the king's bedchamber.
- Padmanabhapuram Palace: Near Thiruvananthapuram.
- Krishnapuram Palace: Kayamkulam (famous Gajendra Moksham panel).
- Temples like Pundareekapuram, Ettumanoor (Shiva temple), Vadakkunnathan (Thrissur).
- Themes: Primarily Hindu mythology – Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, local deities, forms of Shiva and Vishnu.
- Stylistic Features:
- Distinctive style based on iconographic texts like Tantrasamuchaya and Shilparatna.
- Figures are often voluptuous, with rounded faces, large expressive eyes, and elaborate ornamentation.
- Emphasis on emotional expression (Bhava).
- Use of a specific colour palette: Panchavarna (five colours) - red ochre, yellow ochre, green (from Eravikkara leaves), black (soot), white (lime).
- Strong, flowing lines and detailed depiction of costumes and jewellery.
- Highly stylized representation of nature and architecture.
- Technique: Primarily Fresco-secco, sometimes combined with tempera techniques.
8. Decline and Legacy
- The tradition of large-scale mural painting declined gradually due to changing patronage patterns, political instability, and the rise of miniature painting traditions.
- However, these later mural traditions significantly influenced later art forms, including manuscript illustration, folk painting, and even modern Indian art.
- They represent important regional schools of Indian art, showcasing the diversity and continuity of artistic expression.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Here are 10 questions based on the chapter to test your understanding. Choose the best answer for each:
-
The famous mural depicting a lotus pond (Samavasarana) teeming with life is found at which Pandya site?
a) Kanchipuram
b) Panamalai
c) Sittanavasal
d) Lepakshi -
The Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur, known for its magnificent Chola murals, was built by which ruler?
a) Rajasimha Pallava
b) Rajaraja Chola I
c) Achyutaraya Vijayanagara
d) Srimara Srivallabha Pandya -
Which of the following locations is particularly famous for extensive Vijayanagara period murals depicting scenes from epics and portraits of patrons like Virupanna?
a) Mattancherry Palace
b) Sittanavasal
c) Lepakshi
d) Kailasanatha Temple -
The Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram, featuring Pallava murals like Somaskanda, was patronised by which dynasty?
a) Chola
b) Pandya
c) Pallava
d) Vijayanagara -
The use of the True Fresco (Buon Fresco) technique, along with Fresco-secco, is notably found in the murals of which period/location?
a) Pallava murals at Panamalai
b) Pandya murals at Sittanavasal
c) Chola murals at Brihadeeswara Temple
d) Vijayanagara murals at Hampi -
Kerala murals, known for their distinctive style based on texts like Shilparatna, often feature:
a) Flat figures with angular lines
b) Voluptuous figures with expressive faces and elaborate ornamentation
c) Minimal use of colour
d) Primarily abstract designs -
Which location is renowned for its Kerala mural tradition, including famous Ramayana scenes in the king's bedchamber?
a) Lepakshi
b) Thanjavur
c) Hampi
d) Mattancherry Palace, Kochi -
The Nayaka period murals represent a continuation and elaboration primarily of which preceding style?
a) Ajanta style
b) Pallava style
c) Chola style
d) Vijayanagara style -
The theme of 'Tripurantaka' (Shiva destroying three cities) is prominently depicted in the murals of which dynasty?
a) Pandya
b) Chola
c) Gupta
d) Nayaka -
Which dynasty's murals are characterized by elongated figures, rhythmic outlines, and themes like Somaskanda, found in locations like Kanchipuram and Panamalai?
a) Vijayanagara
b) Chola
c) Pallava
d) Kerala School
Answer Key for MCQs:
- (c) Sittanavasal
- (b) Rajaraja Chola I
- (c) Lepakshi
- (c) Pallava
- (c) Chola murals at Brihadeeswara Temple
- (b) Voluptuous figures with expressive faces and elaborate ornamentation
- (d) Mattancherry Palace, Kochi
- (d) Vijayanagara style
- (b) Chola
- (c) Pallava
Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Focus on associating the specific locations, themes, and stylistic features with the correct dynasties. Good luck with your preparation!