Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 (Election and representation) – India Constitution Work Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 3: Election and Representation from your 'Indian Constitution at Work' textbook. This is a crucial chapter, not just for understanding our democracy but also highly relevant for various government examinations. Pay close attention to the details.

Chapter 3: Election and Representation - Detailed Notes

1. Elections and Democracy:

• Elections are the cornerstone of modern representative democracies.
• They allow citizens to choose their representatives who will form the government and make laws on their behalf.
• Regular, free, and fair elections ensure the accountability of the government to the people.
• Representation means that the elected officials reflect the diverse views and interests of the population they serve.

2. Election Systems:
Different countries use different methods or systems for conducting elections. The two most prominent systems are:

• a) First Past The Post (FPTP) System:

  • How it works: The entire country is divided into fixed geographical constituencies (usually single-member constituencies). Each party puts up one candidate per constituency. Voters vote for a candidate. The candidate who secures the highest number of votes in that constituency is declared elected, regardless of whether they secure an absolute majority (more than 50%) of the total votes polled. This is also known as the 'Plurality System'.
  • Used in India: For Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly elections.
  • Advantages:
    • Simple and easy to understand for voters.
    • Tends to produce clear majorities and stable governments.
    • Provides a clear link between voters in a constituency and their specific representative, promoting accountability.
    • Offers voters a choice between specific candidates, not just parties.
  • Disadvantages:
    • Can lead to disproportionate results – a party might win a large majority of seats with significantly less than 50% of the popular vote.
    • Smaller parties often find it difficult to win seats, even if they have significant support spread across regions.
    • A large number of votes cast for losing candidates are effectively 'wasted'.
    • Can encourage voting based on candidate personality or local factors rather than party policy.

• b) Proportional Representation (PR) System:

  • How it works: Aims to allocate seats to political parties roughly in proportion to the votes they receive in the election. Voters typically vote for a party, not necessarily a specific candidate (though variations exist). The country might be treated as one large constituency, or divided into larger multi-member constituencies.
  • Main Variations:
    • List System: Parties present lists of candidates. Seats are allocated to each party based on its vote share. Candidates are elected from the party list in a predetermined order. (Used in Israel, Netherlands).
    • Single Transferable Vote (STV): Voters rank candidates in order of preference. It's a more complex system used in multi-member constituencies. (Used for Rajya Sabha elections in India, also for President and Vice-President elections).
  • Used in India: For elections to Rajya Sabha, President, and Vice-President (using the STV method).
  • Advantages:
    • Produces highly proportional results – seat share closely reflects vote share.
    • Ensures representation for smaller parties with significant support.
    • Reduces the number of 'wasted' votes.
  • Disadvantages:
    • Can be complex for voters to understand.
    • Often leads to coalition governments, which can sometimes be unstable.
    • May weaken the direct link between voters and their specific representative (especially in List Systems).
    • Can sometimes give undue influence to small coalition partners.

3. Why India Adopted FPTP for Lok Sabha/Assemblies:

• Simplicity: Easy for voters to understand and operate, crucial in a country with varying literacy levels at the time of independence.
• Stability: The Constituent Assembly believed FPTP was more likely to produce stable majority governments, essential for a newly independent nation facing numerous challenges.
• Accountability: FPTP provides a clear link between the representative and their constituency, fostering direct accountability.
• While PR was considered, its potential complexity and tendency towards fragmented legislatures led to its rejection for direct elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies. However, its principle of proportionality was adopted for indirect elections (Rajya Sabha etc.) to ensure representation of states and diverse groups.

4. Reservation of Constituencies:

• Rationale: To ensure adequate representation for historically disadvantaged and marginalized sections of society, specifically the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), who might otherwise find it difficult to get elected in an open competition due to prevailing social hierarchies and prejudices. This is a form of protective discrimination aimed at promoting social justice and inclusivity.
• Mechanism: Certain constituencies are 'reserved' for candidates belonging only to SC or ST communities. Only voters within that constituency vote (universal adult franchise applies), but only candidates from the designated group (SC or ST) can contest from that reserved seat.
• Basis for Reservation: The proportion of SC/ST population in a particular state determines the number of seats reserved for them in the Lok Sabha and State Assembly from that state.
• Delimitation Commission:
  • A high-power, independent body appointed periodically (usually after every Census).
  • Tasked with drawing the boundaries of constituencies across the country.
  • Also determines which constituencies are to be reserved for SCs and STs, based on the concentration of their population.
  • Its orders have the force of law and cannot be challenged in any court. This ensures the process remains insulated from political interference.
• Current Status: Reservation for SCs/STs was initially for 10 years but has been extended periodically through constitutional amendments. The debate continues regarding reservation for women and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in legislatures.

5. Free and Fair Elections:

• The credibility of democracy hinges on elections being conducted freely and fairly.

• Key elements include: Universal Adult Franchise, an independent election machinery, transparent procedures, and absence of coercion or manipulation.

• Universal Adult Franchise (Article 326):

  • Guarantees the right to vote to all adult citizens (currently 18 years and above) without discrimination based on caste, creed, religion, sex, or economic status.
  • This ensures political equality.

• Independent Election Commission (ECI):

  • Constitutional Body: Established under Article 324 of the Constitution.
  • Mandate: Vested with the power of 'superintendence, direction and control' of all elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President.
  • Composition: Can be a single-member or multi-member body. Currently, it consists of one Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners (ECs).
  • Appointment: Appointed by the President of India (on the advice of the Council of Ministers, though recent Supreme Court judgments suggest changes towards a more consultative appointment process involving the Leader of Opposition and CJI).
  • Tenure & Security: They have a fixed tenure (6 years or up to 65 years of age, whichever is earlier). The CEC enjoys security of tenure similar to a Supreme Court judge (can be removed only through impeachment by Parliament), ensuring independence. Other ECs can be removed on the recommendation of the CEC.
  • Powers and Functions:
    • Preparing and periodically revising electoral rolls (voter lists).
    • Supervising the nomination process.
    • Granting recognition to political parties and allotting election symbols.
    • Conducting the polls and counting votes.
    • Declaring results.
    • Implementing the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) to ensure a level playing field during elections.
    • Advising the President/Governor on disqualification matters of MPs/MLAs.
    • Cancelling polls in case of rigging, booth capturing, or other irregularities.
    • Overseeing delimitation of constituencies (though the actual work is done by the Delimitation Commission).

6. Electoral Reforms:

• Continuous efforts are needed to cleanse the electoral process of malpractices and make it more robust and representative.
• Reforms Undertaken:
  • Lowering of voting age from 21 to 18 years (61st Amendment Act, 1989).
  • Introduction of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) to prevent booth capturing and ballot stuffing, and ensure faster counting.
  • Introduction of Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) to increase transparency and allow verification of votes cast through EVMs.
  • Requirement for candidates to file affidavits detailing criminal antecedents, assets, liabilities, and educational qualifications.
  • Implementation of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) more strictly by the ECI.
  • Introduction of NOTA (None Of The Above) option on the ballot/EVM.
• Areas Requiring Further Reform:
  • Curbing the role of money power and excessive election expenditure.
  • De-criminalization of politics (preventing candidates with serious criminal charges from contesting).
  • Regulating opinion polls and preventing 'paid news'.
  • Ensuring inner-party democracy within political parties.
  • Addressing the misuse of government machinery by the ruling party during elections.
  • Exploring state funding of elections.

Key Terms:

• Constituency: A specific geographical area from which voters elect a representative(s).
• Delimitation: The process of drawing boundaries of electoral constituencies.
• Electoral Roll: The official list of eligible voters in a constituency.
• Incumbent: The current holder of a political office.
• By-election: An election held to fill a vacancy caused by the death, resignation, or disqualification of an elected member before the expiry of their term.
• Mid-term election: An election held before the scheduled expiry of the legislature's term, usually because the government loses its majority or recommends dissolution.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Which election system is primarily used for Lok Sabha elections in India?
   a) Proportional Representation (List System)
   b) First Past The Post (FPTP)
   c) Single Transferable Vote (STV)
   d) Mixed Member Proportional System

2. Under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution, the power of 'superintendence, direction and control' of elections is vested in the:
   a) Parliament of India
   b) President of India
   c) Election Commission of India
   d) Supreme Court of India

3. The system of reserving constituencies for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India aims to:
   a) Ensure victory for specific political parties.
   b) Provide separate electorates for these communities.
   c) Guarantee representation for historically disadvantaged groups.
   d) Limit the number of candidates in elections.

4. In the Proportional Representation (PR) system, seats in the legislature are allocated primarily based on:
   a) The number of constituencies won by a party.
   b) The highest votes received by individual candidates.
   c) The proportion of total votes received by each party.
   d) The geographical size of the party's support base.

5. The body responsible for drawing the boundaries of electoral constituencies in India is the:
   a) Election Commission of India
   b) Parliament
   c) Delimitation Commission
   d) Ministry of Home Affairs

6. Universal Adult Franchise, as guaranteed by the Indian Constitution (Article 326), means:
   a) Only graduates can vote.
   b) Only property owners can vote.
   c) All adult citizens (18 years and above) have the right to vote without discrimination.
   d) Different communities have different voting rights.

7. Which of the following elections in India uses the Proportional Representation system (specifically, STV)?
   a) Lok Sabha Elections
   b) State Legislative Assembly Elections
   c) Panchayat Elections
   d) Rajya Sabha Elections

8. A major disadvantage often cited for the FPTP system is that:
   a) It leads to unstable coalition governments.
   b) It is too complex for voters to understand.
   c) A party can win a majority of seats without a majority of votes.
   d) It gives too much representation to smaller parties.

9. The lowering of the voting age from 21 to 18 years was done through which Constitutional Amendment Act?
   a) 42nd Amendment Act
   b) 44th Amendment Act
   c) 61st Amendment Act
   d) 73rd Amendment Act

10. What does 'NOTA' stand for in the context of Indian elections?
    a) National Open Tally Arrangement
    b) No Other Trusted Alternative
    c) None Of The Above
    d) New Official Tabulation Authority

Answers to MCQs:

1. b) First Past The Post (FPTP)
2. c) Election Commission of India
3. c) Guarantee representation for historically disadvantaged groups.
4. c) The proportion of total votes received by each party.
5. c) Delimitation Commission
6. c) All adult citizens (18 years and above) have the right to vote without discrimination.
7. d) Rajya Sabha Elections
8. c) A party can win a majority of seats without a majority of votes.
9. c) 61st Amendment Act
10. c) None Of The Above

Make sure you understand the differences between FPTP and PR thoroughly, the role and powers of the Election Commission (especially Article 324), and the rationale behind reservation. These are frequently tested areas. Good luck with your preparation!