Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 (Thinking) – Introduction to Pshycology Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 8, 'Thinking', from your NCERT Class 11 Psychology textbook. This is a crucial chapter, not just for understanding psychology but also because concepts from here often appear in various government exams. Pay close attention to the definitions and processes involved.

Chapter 8: Thinking - Detailed Notes for Exam Preparation

1. Introduction to Thinking

• Definition: Thinking is a complex mental activity involving the manipulation and transformation of information received from the environment and stored in memory. It's a higher cognitive process fundamental to all human activities.
• Nature:
  • It is goal-directed. We usually think for a purpose – solving a problem, making a decision, understanding an event, etc.
  • It is internal (a mental process) but can be inferred from overt behaviour.
  • It involves manipulation of information (using symbols, images, concepts).
  • It is organised and systematic.
• Base of Thinking: Thinking relies heavily on mental representations – internal, symbolic ways of representing information (objects, events, ideas).

2. Building Blocks of Thought

• Mental Images: Representations that resemble the object or event being thought about (e.g., picturing your house). They are often sensory (visual, auditory, etc.).
• Concepts: Mental categories used to group objects, events, or ideas based on common properties.
  • Function: Help organise knowledge, simplify information processing, allow generalisation.
  • Formation: Based on defining features or attributes.
  • Prototypes: The best or most typical example of a concept (e.g., for the concept 'bird', a sparrow might be a prototype for many, rather than a penguin). Prototypes help in quicker categorization.
• Schemas: Mental frameworks or organised bodies of knowledge about a particular object, event, or concept, built up through experience. They influence how we perceive, interpret, and remember information.

3. Types of Thinking

• (A) Problem Solving: Thinking directed towards finding a solution for a specific problem.

  • Problem Definition: A situation where there is a gap or obstacle between a present state and a desired goal state, and it's not immediately obvious how to bridge that gap.
  • Stages/Process (Common Model - e.g., IDEAL):
    1. Identify the problem.
    2. Define and represent the problem clearly.
    3. Explore possible strategies/solutions (e.g., trial and error, algorithms, heuristics).
    4. Act on the chosen strategy.
    5. Look back and evaluate the effectiveness of the solution.
  • Obstacles to Problem Solving:
    • Mental Set: Tendency to persist in using past problem-solving strategies that have worked, even if they are no longer effective for the current problem. (Sticking to the old ways).
    • Functional Fixedness: Tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common or customary function, hindering its use in a novel way to solve a problem (e.g., not thinking of using a coin as a screwdriver).
    • Lack of Motivation/Interest: Reduces persistence and effort.
    • Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.

• (B) Reasoning: Drawing conclusions or inferences from information (premises or evidence).

  • Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning from general principles or premises to specific conclusions. If the premises are true and the logic is valid, the conclusion must be true. (General -> Specific).
    • Example: All humans are mortal (Premise 1). Socrates is a human (Premise 2). Therefore, Socrates is mortal (Conclusion).
  • Inductive Reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations or facts to broader generalisations or principles. Conclusions are probable but not guaranteed to be true. (Specific -> General).
    • Example: Swan 1 is white. Swan 2 is white. Swan 3 is white. Therefore, all swans are probably white. (This conclusion was later found false with the discovery of black swans).

• (C) Decision Making: Choosing among various alternatives based on evaluating their potential outcomes and likelihoods. It's a form of problem-solving where you know all possible solutions/options.

  • Judgment: Forming opinions, reaching conclusions, and making evaluations based on available information. Often involves heuristics.
  • Heuristics (Mental Shortcuts): Rules of thumb that simplify decision-making but can sometimes lead to errors.
    • Availability Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. (e.g., overestimating plane crash risk after seeing news reports).
    • Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something belonging to a category based on how well it matches the prototype for that category. (e.g., assuming someone quiet and studious is more likely a librarian than a salesperson, ignoring base rates).
    • Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic: Making estimates by starting from an initial value (anchor) and then adjusting, often insufficiently.

• (D) Creative Thinking: Ability to think in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.

  • Nature: Involves both Convergent (focusing on a single best solution) and Divergent thinking (generating multiple possible solutions or ideas from a single starting point). Creativity primarily involves divergent thinking.
  • Characteristics of Creative Thinkers: Fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, curiosity, persistence, tolerance for ambiguity.
  • Stages of Creative Thinking (Wallas' Model):
    1. Preparation: Defining the problem, gathering information.
    2. Incubation: Setting the problem aside; subconscious processing may occur.
    3. Illumination: Sudden insight or "Aha!" moment; the solution appears.
    4. Verification: Evaluating and refining the solution.
  • Developing Creativity: Brainstorming, encouraging curiosity, providing opportunities for imaginative play, removing blocks like fear of failure.

4. Thought and Language

• Interrelationship: Language is a system of symbols used for communication and thought. Thought and language are deeply intertwined.
  • Language uses concepts and symbols, which are tools for thinking.
  • Thinking often takes the form of inner speech or verbal propositions.
• Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorfian Hypothesis): Proposed by Benjamin Whorf. The idea that the language one speaks influences the way one thinks about and perceives the world.
  • Strong version (Linguistic Determinism): Language determines thought (largely unsupported).
  • Weak version (Linguistic Relativity): Language influences thought (more accepted). Example: Cultures with many words for snow might perceive variations in snow differently.
• Language Development and Thought: As language develops in children, their thinking becomes more complex and abstract (Vygotsky emphasized the role of language in cognitive development).

5. Development of Thinking

• While covered in detail in the chapter on Human Development (Piaget's theory), it's relevant here that thinking abilities develop progressively through stages, moving from concrete, sensory-based thought in infancy to abstract, logical thought in adolescence and adulthood.

Key Takeaways for Exams:

• Know the definitions of thinking, concepts, prototypes, schemas.
• Understand the different types of thinking: Problem Solving, Reasoning (Deductive vs. Inductive), Decision Making, Creative Thinking (Convergent vs. Divergent).
• Be able to identify the stages involved in problem-solving and creative thinking.
• Recognize common obstacles (Mental Set, Functional Fixedness) and biases (Availability, Representativeness, Anchoring).
• Understand the basic relationship between thought and language, including the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Which of the following is considered the most basic unit or building block of thought?
   a) Language
   b) Problem Solving
   c) Concept
   d) Decision Making

2. A mental category used to group objects or events based on shared properties is known as a:
   a) Schema
   b) Prototype
   c) Concept
   d) Mental Image

3. Riya is asked to think of a 'fruit'. The first image that comes to her mind is an 'apple'. For Riya, an apple likely serves as a(n) ________ for the concept 'fruit'.
   a) Algorithm
   b) Schema
   c) Heuristic
   d) Prototype

4. Reasoning from specific observations to broader general principles is called:
   a) Deductive Reasoning
   b) Inductive Reasoning
   c) Creative Thinking
   d) Algorithmic Thinking

5. A mechanic sticks to the same diagnostic routine for every car problem, even when it repeatedly fails for a new type of hybrid engine. This is an example of:
   a) Functional Fixedness
   b) Mental Set
   c) Availability Heuristic
   d) Confirmation Bias

6. Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind is known as the:
   a) Representativeness Heuristic
   b) Anchoring Heuristic
   c) Availability Heuristic
   d) Functional Fixedness

7. Generating multiple possible solutions to a problem is characteristic of:
   a) Convergent Thinking
   b) Deductive Reasoning
   c) Divergent Thinking
   d) Functional Fixedness

8. The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorfian Hypothesis) suggests that:
   a) Language development depends entirely on thought.
   b) The language we speak influences how we think.
   c) All languages share a universal grammar.
   d) Thinking is possible only through language.

9. Sudden realization of a solution to a problem after a period of mental inactivity is known as which stage of creative thinking?
   a) Preparation
   b) Incubation
   c) Illumination
   d) Verification

10. A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a specific type of problem is called a(n):
    a) Heuristic
    b) Algorithm
    c) Prototype
    d) Mental Set

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. c) Concept
2. c) Concept
3. d) Prototype
4. b) Inductive Reasoning
5. b) Mental Set
6. c) Availability Heuristic
7. c) Divergent Thinking
8. b) The language we speak influences how we think.
9. c) Illumination
10. b) Algorithm

Study these notes carefully, focus on understanding the core ideas, and practice applying them. Good luck with your preparation!