Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 2 (Migration: types; causes and consequences) – India - People and Economy Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 2 of 'India - People and Economy', focusing on Migration. This is a crucial topic, not just for your board exams but also frequently features in various government exams. Pay close attention to the definitions, trends, and impacts discussed.

Chapter 2: Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences

1. Introduction to Migration

• Definition: Migration is the movement of people from one place to another, involving a change in their usual place of residence. This movement can be permanent, temporary, or seasonal.
• Significance in India: India has a long history of migration, both internal and international. The Indian Census is a primary source of migration data.
• Census Definition: The Census of India records migration based on two criteria:
  • Place of Birth: If the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (where the person was found during the census), they are considered a lifetime migrant.
  • Place of Last Residence: If the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration, they are considered a migrant by place of last residence. Data based on the place of last residence provides information on more recent migratory movements.
• As per Census 2011, about 455 million people (37% of the total population) in India were reported as migrants based on the place of last residence.

2. Types of Migration

Migration can be classified based on different criteria:

• Based on Origin and Destination:
  • Internal Migration: Movement within the political boundaries of a country. This is the most dominant form of migration in India.
  • International Migration: Movement across international borders (Immigration: moving into a country; Emigration: moving out of a country).
• Streams of Internal Migration (Very Important):
  • Rural to Rural (R-R): Movement from one rural area to another. Historically significant, often related to agricultural opportunities or marriage (especially for females). Females dominate this stream primarily due to marriage.
  • Rural to Urban (R-U): Movement from rural areas to towns and cities. This stream is significant for males seeking employment and economic opportunities. It's a major contributor to urban growth.
  • Urban to Urban (U-U): Movement from one town/city to another, often for better economic prospects, education, or career advancement.
  • Urban to Rural (U-R): Movement from urban areas back to rural areas. This is the least dominant stream, often associated with retirement, return migration after job loss, or seeking a quieter life.
• Dominant Streams (Census 2011):
  • Intra-state migration (movement within the same state) is far more common than Inter-state migration (movement between states).
  • Females dominate short-distance rural-to-rural migration (primarily due to marriage).
  • Males dominate long-distance rural-to-urban migration (primarily for economic reasons/employment).

3. Spatial Variation in Migration

• States Receiving High In-migration (Net In-migration): Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka. These are typically states with better economic opportunities, industrial development, and urban centres. Mumbai, Delhi, Surat, Bengaluru are major destinations.
• States with High Out-migration (Net Out-migration): Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand. These states often face challenges like poverty, lack of employment, and agricultural distress.
• Urban Agglomerations (UA): Greater Mumbai received the highest number of in-migrants (as per Census 2011 data trends). Delhi UA is also a major destination.

4. Causes of Migration

Migration is influenced by a combination of factors operating at both the origin and destination:

• Push Factors (Factors forcing people to leave their place of origin):
  • Poverty and lack of livelihood opportunities.
  • Unemployment and underemployment.
  • Poor economic conditions, agricultural distress (low yields, debt).
  • Lack of basic infrastructure (education, health facilities).
  • Natural disasters (floods, droughts, cyclones).
  • Political instability, conflicts, insecurity.
  • Social discrimination (caste-based, etc.).
  • Epidemics.
• Pull Factors (Factors attracting people to a destination):
  • Better employment opportunities and higher wages.
  • Availability of regular work.
  • Better educational and health facilities.
  • Better living conditions and amenities (entertainment, infrastructure).
  • Relative peace and security.
  • Opportunities for social mobility.
• Gender Differentials in Causes:
  • Females: Marriage is the most common reason for migration (especially in R-R stream).
  • Males: Work/Employment and Business are the primary reasons (especially in R-U stream).

5. Consequences of Migration

Migration impacts both the area of origin (where people leave from) and the area of destination (where people arrive).

• A. Economic Consequences:

  • Positive:
    • Remittances: Migrants send money home, which is a major source of income for households in source regions. It helps in improving consumption, education, health, repaying loans, and agricultural investment. Punjab, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu receive significant international remittances.
    • Fills labour demand in destination areas (e.g., agriculture in Punjab/Haryana, industries in Maharashtra/Gujarat).
    • Potential for skill development and knowledge transfer upon return.
  • Negative:
    • Brain Drain: Loss of skilled and educated workforce from the source region.
    • Reduced workforce in agriculture/traditional occupations in source regions (though remittances might compensate).
    • Overcrowding and pressure on resources/infrastructure in destination areas.
    • Growth of unregulated/informal sector jobs and markets in cities.
    • Increased cost of living in destination areas.

• B. Demographic Consequences:

  • Positive: Redistributes population, potentially easing demographic pressure in some source areas.
  • Negative:
    • Causes imbalance in age and sex structure. Source regions often left with children, women, and elderly. Destination areas (especially cities) see an increase in the working-age male population, leading to skewed sex ratios.
    • Contributes significantly to urban population growth.

• C. Social Consequences:

  • Positive:
    • Exposure to new cultures, ideas, and technologies, leading to social change.
    • Fosters a composite culture and breaks down narrow social norms.
    • Enhances social mobility for migrants.
  • Negative:
    • Anonymity in cities can create a social vacuum and feelings of dejection, sometimes leading to crime or drug abuse.
    • Difficulty in assimilation, potential for discrimination or exclusion.
    • Increased pressure on women left behind in source regions (handling family, agriculture, etc.).
    • Loss of traditional social support systems for migrants.

• D. Environmental Consequences:

  • Negative:
    • Overcrowding in destination cities puts immense pressure on existing infrastructure (housing, water supply, sanitation, sewage disposal, transport).
    • Over-exploitation of natural resources like groundwater.
    • Increased air, water, and noise pollution.
    • Problems of solid waste management.
    • Unplanned growth of cities, proliferation of slums and shanty colonies (unhygienic conditions, vulnerability to diseases).

• E. Other Consequences:

  • Vulnerability of Women: Female migrants (especially those migrating for work) can be vulnerable to exploitation.
  • Health: Overcrowding and poor sanitation in slums can lead to the spread of diseases. Migrants may also bring diseases from one region to another.

Conclusion: Migration is a complex phenomenon with diverse causes and far-reaching consequences. While it can be an engine for economic growth and social change, it also poses significant challenges that require careful planning and policy intervention, especially concerning urban development, resource management, and social integration.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

Here are 10 MCQs based on the chapter for your practice:

1. According to the Census of India, a person is considered a 'lifetime migrant' if:
   (A) Their place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration.
   (B) They have moved within the last 5 years.
   (C) Their place of birth is different from the place of enumeration.
   (D) They intend to stay in the new place for more than 6 months.
   Answer: (C)

2. Which stream of internal migration in India is dominated by female migrants, primarily due to marriage?
   (A) Rural to Urban (R-U)
   (B) Urban to Urban (U-U)
   (C) Rural to Rural (R-R)
   (D) Urban to Rural (U-R)
   Answer: (C)

3. Which of the following states is typically characterized by high net out-migration?
   (A) Maharashtra
   (B) Gujarat
   (C) Delhi
   (D) Bihar
   Answer: (D)

4. The primary 'pull factor' driving male migration from rural to urban areas in India is:
   (A) Marriage
   (B) Better educational facilities
   (C) Work and employment opportunities
   (D) Political stability
   Answer: (C)

5. Remittances sent by migrants primarily benefit the:
   (A) Area of destination
   (B) Area of origin
   (C) Both origin and destination equally
   (D) International banking system
   Answer: (B)

6. Which of the following is considered a negative social consequence of migration in the destination areas?
   (A) Increased pressure on infrastructure
   (B) Brain drain
   (C) Anonymity leading to potential anti-social activities
   (D) Skewed sex ratio
   Answer: (C)

7. The concept of 'Brain Drain' is associated with which consequence of migration?
   (A) Demographic consequence in the destination area
   (B) Economic consequence in the source area
   (C) Environmental consequence in the destination area
   (D) Social consequence in the source area
   Answer: (B)

8. Which type of migration involves movement within the political boundaries of a country?
   (A) International Migration
   (B) Emigration
   (C) Immigration
   (D) Internal Migration
   Answer: (D)

9. Overcrowding, pressure on infrastructure, and the growth of slums in cities are primarily linked to which consequence of migration?
   (A) Economic
   (B) Demographic
   (C) Social
   (D) Environmental
   Answer: (D)

10. Which Urban Agglomeration (UA) typically receives one of the highest numbers of in-migrants in India?
    (A) Kolkata UA
    (B) Chennai UA
    (C) Greater Mumbai UA
    (D) Hyderabad UA
    Answer: (C)

Revise these notes thoroughly. Understanding the push-pull factors and the multifaceted consequences is key. Good luck with your preparation!