Class 12 Geography Notes Chapter 5 (Primary activities) – Fundamentals of Indian Geography Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 5, 'Primary Activities', from your 'Fundamentals of Human Geography' textbook. This is a crucial chapter, not just for your board exams but also for various government exams, as it lays the foundation for understanding economic geography.

Primary Activities: Detailed Notes

1. Introduction:

• Definition: Primary activities are economic activities directly dependent on the environment, involving the utilization of earth's resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials, and minerals.
• Scope: Includes hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.
• Significance: Foundation of the economy, providing raw materials for secondary industries and food for the population. People engaged in primary activities are often called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.

2. Hunting and Gathering:

• Oldest Occupation: Practiced by early human societies. Relies entirely on the immediate environment.
• Characteristics:
  • Requires small capital investment.
  • Low level of technology.
  • Low population density support.
  • People live in small, isolated groups.
  • Dependence on animals hunted and edible plants gathered.
• Tools: Primitive tools made of stone, wood, or bone (e.g., arrows, traps).
• Regions:
  • High Latitude Zones: Northern Canada, Northern Eurasia (Siberia).
  • Low Latitude Zones: Amazon Basin (South America), Tropical Africa, Interior parts of Southeast Asia (e.g., Malaysia, Philippines).
• Modern Context:
  • Declining significance due to modernization and encroachment of external forces.
  • Some gathering has become market-oriented/commercialized (e.g., gathering leaves, bark, medicinal plants like Chicle for chewing gum, Quinine bark, Cork).

3. Pastoralism (Animal Rearing):

• Domestication: Began after realizing hunting was unsustainable. Different animals domesticated based on geographic factors and cultural development.
• Types:
  • A. Nomadic Herding (Pastoral Nomadism):
    • Nature: Primitive subsistence activity. Herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools, transport.
    • Movement: Move from place to place with livestock for pastures and water. Each group has defined territory.
    • Transhumance: Seasonal migration of pastoralists with their herds, e.g., Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, Bhotiyas in Himalayas (summer: mountains, winter: plains); Tundra region herders (summer: north, winter: south).
    • Animals: Vary by region - Cattle (tropical Africa), Sheep/Goats/Camels (Sahara, Asiatic deserts), Yaks/Llamas (Tibet, Andes), Reindeer (Arctic/Sub-Arctic).
    • Regions: Core region extends from Atlantic shores of North Africa (Sahara) eastwards across Arabian peninsula into Mongolia and Central China. Also Tundra regions and southern hemisphere (SW Africa, Madagascar).
    • Decline: Due to imposition of political boundaries and new settlement plans by countries.
  • B. Commercial Livestock Rearing:
    • Nature: Organised, scientific, capital-intensive, market-oriented. Practiced on permanent ranches.
    • Characteristics: Large ranches divided into parcels, regulated grazing, focus on specific animal breeds specialised for products like meat, wool, hides. Scientific breeding, genetic improvement, disease control, healthcare are priorities.
    • Products: Meat, wool, hides, skins - processed, packed scientifically, exported.
    • Animals: Sheep (wool), Cattle (meat), Goats, Horses.
    • Regions: New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, United States (Western). Associated with temperate grasslands.

4. Agriculture:

• Definition: The science and art of cultivating soil, raising crops, and rearing livestock.

• Factors Influencing Agriculture: Physical factors (climate, relief, soil) and socio-economic factors (market, capital, technology, labour, government policies).

• Types of Agricultural Systems:

  • A. Subsistence Agriculture: Farming for self-consumption or local community.

    • i. Primitive Subsistence Agriculture:
      • Shifting Cultivation (Slash-and-burn):
        • Process: Clear forest patch by cutting/burning, cultivate for few years until fertility declines, then abandon and clear new patch.
        • Characteristics: Uses primitive tools (sticks, hoes), human labour, low yield.
        • Names: Jhuming (NE India), Milpa (Central America/Mexico), Ladang (Indonesia/Malaysia), Ray (Vietnam), Chena (Sri Lanka), Caingin (Philippines).
        • Regions: Tropical forests of Africa, Central/South America, Southeast Asia.
        • Issues: Deforestation, soil erosion, ecological imbalance. Declining due to government policies and population pressure.
      • Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:
        • Characteristics: Practiced in densely populated regions (Monsoon Asia). Small land holdings, intensive use of land, high labour input (family labour), minimal use of machinery, multiple cropping possible. Focus on food crops.
        • Types based on crop:
          • Wet Paddy Dominant: Requires abundant water. Rice is the main crop. High yield per unit area, but low productivity per labourer.
          • Non-Paddy Dominant: Practiced in areas with less rainfall/suitable relief for paddy. Wheat, soybean, barley, sorghum are main crops. Irrigation often used. Common in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, North Japan, parts of India (Indo-Gangetic plains west).

  • B. Commercial Agriculture: Farming primarily for sale in markets.

    • i. Extensive Commercial Grain Farming:
      • Characteristics: Large farms (hundreds of hectares), highly mechanised (combines, tractors), low yield per acre but high output per person, monoculture (usually wheat), capital intensive.
      • Regions: Semi-arid mid-latitude grasslands - Steppes (Eurasia), Prairies (N. America), Pampas (Argentina), Velds (S. Africa), Downs (Australia), Canterbury Plains (New Zealand).
    • ii. Mixed Farming:
      • Characteristics: Simultaneous cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. Crops like wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder crops are grown. Crop rotation and intercropping maintain soil fertility. Animals (cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry) provide income and manure. High capital expenditure on machinery, fertilisers, buildings, skilled labour.
      • Regions: Highly developed parts of the world - North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
    • iii. Dairy Farming:
      • Characteristics: Most advanced and efficient type of animal rearing focused on milch animals (cows). Capital intensive (storage, feeding, milking machines). Labour intensive (feeding, milking). Located near urban/industrial centers for fresh milk/dairy product market access. Good transportation needed. No off-season.
      • Regions: North Western Europe (largest belt), Canada, South Eastern Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania.
    • iv. Mediterranean Agriculture:
      • Characteristics: Highly specialised commercial agriculture adapted to Mediterranean climate (warm dry summers, mild wet winters). Viticulture (grape cultivation) is a speciality; grapes made into wine or raisins. Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), olives, figs are important. High-value crops grown in winter when demand is high in Europe/N. America.
      • Regions: Areas around Mediterranean Sea (S. Europe, N. Africa), California (USA), Central Chile, South Western Cape (South Africa), South & South Western parts of Australia.
    • v. Market Gardening and Horticulture:
      • Characteristics: Specialises in high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, flowers. Small farms, located near urban markets. Intensive farming (labour and capital). Good transport links (refrigerated trucks) crucial. Includes Truck Farming where distance to market is covered overnight by truck. Also involves Factory Farming in some developed regions (livestock in stalls/pens, fed manufactured feed).
      • Regions: Densely populated industrial areas of NW Europe, NE USA, Mediterranean regions. Netherlands is famous for tulips.
    • vi. Plantation Agriculture:
      • Introduced by: Europeans in tropical/sub-tropical colonies.
      • Characteristics: Large estates/plantations, single crop specialisation (monoculture), capital intensive, requires good management, technical support, scientific methods, cheap labour, efficient transport linking estate to factory and market. Primarily export-oriented.
      • Crops & Regions: Tea (India, Sri Lanka), Coffee (Brazil, Colombia), Cocoa (West Africa), Rubber (Malaysia, Indonesia), Cotton & Sugarcane (various tropical regions), Bananas & Pineapples (tropical lowlands).
      • Ownership: Many plantations now owned by governments or nationals of the respective countries. Example: French established cocoa/coffee plantations in West Africa; British set up tea gardens in India/Sri Lanka, rubber estates in Malaysia, sugarcane/banana plantations in West Indies; Spanish/Americans invested in coconut/sugarcane in Philippines; Dutch had sugarcane in Indonesia. Brazil's coffee plantations (fazendas) are still managed by Europeans.
    • vii. Cooperative Farming:
      • Farmers pool their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Individual farms remain intact. Cooperative society helps in buying inputs, processing, marketing.
      • Success: Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy.
    • viii. Collective Farming:
      • Based on social ownership of means of production and collective labour. Farmers pool all resources (land, livestock, labour). Yearly targets set by state, produce sold to state at fixed prices. Members paid based on work done.
      • Origin: Introduced in former Soviet Union (USSR) - model called Kolkhoz. Modified/abolished in many socialist countries after USSR collapse.

5. Mining:

• Definition: Extraction of naturally occurring minerals from the earth. Its development began much later than agriculture, linked to the Industrial Revolution.
• Factors Affecting Mining Activity:
  • Physical Factors: Size, grade (mineral content), and mode of occurrence (depth, structure) of the deposits.
  • Economic Factors: Demand for the mineral, available technology, capital investment, transport infrastructure, labour availability and cost.
• Methods of Mining:
  • Surface Mining (Open-cast/Strip Mining): Used when minerals occur close to the surface. Easiest and cheapest method. Removes overlying material (overburden). Produces large output quickly. Safety precautions and environmental costs (land degradation) are lower than underground mining but still significant.
  • Underground Mining (Shaft Mining): Used when ore lies deep below the surface. Vertical shafts sunk, underground galleries radiate out. Requires specialised drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation systems. Risky method due to potential accidents (poisonous gases, fires, floods, caving in). Very expensive.
• Significance: Provides raw materials for industries, crucial for economic development.
• Challenges: Depletion of resources, environmental pollution (land, water, air), displacement of communities, health hazards for miners. Developed economies are often retreating from mining due to high labour costs, while developing countries with large labour forces are becoming major players.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

1. Which of the following primary activities is considered the oldest economic activity known to humans?
   a) Agriculture
   b) Mining
   c) Hunting and Gathering
   d) Fishing

2. Transhumance is primarily associated with which type of primary activity?
   a) Shifting Cultivation
   b) Nomadic Herding
   c) Commercial Livestock Rearing
   d) Dairy Farming

3. Extensive Commercial Grain Farming is typically practiced in which type of geographical region?
   a) Tropical Rainforests
   b) Mid-latitude Temperate Grasslands
   c) Arctic Tundra
   d) Mediterranean Climate Zones

4. Viticulture, the specialized cultivation of grapes, is a hallmark of which agricultural system?
   a) Mixed Farming
   b) Dairy Farming
   c) Mediterranean Agriculture
   d) Plantation Agriculture

5. 'Kolkhoz' was a model of which type of farming, primarily practiced in the former Soviet Union?
   a) Cooperative Farming
   b) Collective Farming
   c) Subsistence Farming
   d) Market Gardening

6. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Plantation Agriculture?
   a) Large estates
   b) Monoculture (single crop specialisation)
   c) High reliance on family labour for subsistence
   d) Capital intensive and export-oriented

7. The extraction of minerals occurring deep below the surface is done using which method?
   a) Open-cast mining
   b) Strip mining
   c) Quarrying
   d) Underground (Shaft) mining

8. Which of the following regions is NOT typically associated with Nomadic Herding?
   a) Sahara Desert
   b) Central Asia
   c) North Western Europe
   d) Tundra Region

9. Market Gardening and Horticulture are typically located near:
   a) Coastal areas for fishing ports
   b) Mining sites for labour
   c) Urban centres for markets
   d) Large water bodies for irrigation

10. 'Jhuming', 'Milpa', and 'Ladang' are local names for which type of agricultural practice?
    a) Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
    b) Shifting Cultivation
    c) Commercial Grain Farming
    d) Mixed Farming

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. c) Hunting and Gathering
2. b) Nomadic Herding
3. b) Mid-latitude Temperate Grasslands
4. c) Mediterranean Agriculture
5. b) Collective Farming
6. c) High reliance on family labour for subsistence (Plantations often use hired, often cheap, labour)
7. d) Underground (Shaft) mining
8. c) North Western Europe (This region is known for Mixed Farming, Dairy Farming etc.)
9. c) Urban centres for markets
10. b) Shifting Cultivation

Make sure you revise these concepts thoroughly. Understand the characteristics, regions, and differences between various primary activities. This will be very helpful for your objective and subjective questions in exams. Good luck!