Class 12 Heritage Crafts Notes Chapter 1 (Crafts in the Past) – Craft Tradition of India Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 1: 'Crafts in the Past'. This chapter is fundamental to understanding the long and rich history of Indian crafts, tracing their evolution from the earliest times. Pay close attention, as these details are crucial for your exam preparation.

Chapter 1: Crafts in the Past - Detailed Notes

1. Introduction: What are Crafts?

• Crafts refer to skills involving manual dexterity and artistry to create objects that can be functional, decorative, or both.
• In the Indian context, crafts are deeply intertwined with culture, religion, social life, and economy.
• Studying past crafts provides insights into the technology, aesthetics, trade, beliefs, and daily life of ancient and medieval societies.

2. Prehistoric Period:

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age):
  • Focus on survival; primary 'craft' was tool-making.
  • Tools: Crude choppers, hand-axes, cleavers, scrapers made from stones like quartzite.
  • Techniques: Chipping and flaking stone.
  • Evidence: Found across India (e.g., Soan Valley, Narmada Valley, Bhimbetka).
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age):
  • Tools: Microliths – smaller, refined stone tools (points, blades, lunates, trapezes). Used for composite tools (arrowheads, spearheads).
  • Materials: Continued use of stone, supplemented by bone and antler.
  • Art: Rock paintings (e.g., Bhimbetka) depicting hunting, dancing, daily life – early evidence of artistic expression.
• Neolithic (New Stone Age):
  • Revolution: Advent of agriculture and settled life.
  • Tools: Polished stone tools (celts, axes, adzes) for clearing land and woodworking. Bone tools also used.
  • Pottery: Major development. Handmade pottery, initially coarse, later finer. Used for storing grains and liquids. Evidence from sites like Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Chirand.
  • Early evidence of weaving from impressions on pottery.

3. Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) (c. 2600-1900 BCE):

• Urban Craftsmanship: Highly developed urban society with specialized crafts.
• Materials: Terracotta (clay), steatite, various stones (carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, jasper), metals (copper, bronze, gold, silver), shell, ivory, faience.
• Key Crafts:
  • Pottery: Wheel-made, sturdy, often red slip with black painted designs (geometric patterns, flora, fauna). Distinct shapes like dish-on-stand, perforated jars.
  • Seals: Mostly square, made of steatite. Carved with intricate animal figures (unicorn, bull, elephant, rhino) and Indus script (undeciphered). Used for trade and identification.
  • Bead Making: Major industry. Beads of carnelian, agate, steatite, faience, gold etc. Evidence of bead factories (e.g., Chanhudaro, Lothal). Exported widely.
  • Terracotta Figurines: Handmade figures of mother goddesses, animals (bulls), toy carts. Show artistic skill and cultural beliefs.
  • Metalwork: Skilled use of copper and bronze (alloy of copper and tin). Employed techniques like 'lost-wax' (cire perdue) casting (e.g., Dancing Girl from Mohenjo-daro). Made tools, weapons, vessels, jewellery. Gold and silver used for jewellery.
  • Textiles: Evidence of cotton textiles from fragments and impressions. Spindle whorls found, indicating spinning. Possible use of dyed fabrics.
  • Standardized Weights & Measures: Made of chert, cubical in shape, indicating regulated trade.

4. Vedic Period (c. 1500-600 BCE):

• Literary Evidence: Primarily from Vedic texts (Rigveda, later Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads).
• Materials: Wood (carpentry highly valued - 'Takshan'), metals ('Ayas' - initially copper/bronze, later iron), leather, cotton, wool.
• Crafts Mentioned: Carpentry, metal smelting, pottery (Painted Grey Ware - PGW associated with later Vedic period), weaving, chariot-making, leatherwork.
• Artisans: Mention of 'Karmara' (metalworker), 'Kulala' (potter), 'Takshan' (carpenter). Crafts were often hereditary.
• Less archaeological evidence compared to Harappan period, especially for monumental structures or elaborate artifacts initially.

5. Mauryan Period (c. 322-185 BCE):

• Monumental Art & Architecture: Use of stone on a large scale, influenced by Persian/Achaemenid art.
• Ashokan Pillars: Highly polished (Mauryan polish - distinctive feature), monolithic sandstone pillars inscribed with edicts. Topped with capitals featuring animal figures (e.g., Lion Capital of Sarnath). Demonstrates advanced stone-cutting and polishing techniques.
• Sculpture: Yaksha and Yakshi figures (e.g., Didarganj Yakshi) – large, somewhat archaic style.
• Pottery: Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) – fine, wheel-made pottery with a characteristic glossy black surface. Considered a luxury ware.
• Guilds (Shrenis): Rise of craft guilds, indicating organization and specialization of artisans. Provided training, regulated quality and prices, acted as banks.

6. Post-Mauryan Period (Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas, Kushanas) (c. 2nd Century BCE - 3rd Century CE):

• Regional Styles Flourish:
  • Sculpture: Development of major schools:
    • Gandhara School: Northwest India (influenced by Greco-Roman style). Used grey schist. Depicted Buddha in Hellenistic style.
    • Mathura School: Indigenous style. Used red spotted sandstone. Produced images of Buddha, Jaina Tirthankaras, Yakshas, and Hindu deities.
    • Amaravati School: (Satavahana patronage) Narrative sculptures, dynamic movement. Used white marble.
  • Stupa Architecture: Elaborated railings and gateways (toranas) with intricate carvings (e.g., Sanchi, Bharhut).
  • Ivory Carving: Exquisite examples found (e.g., Begram hoard).
  • Coinage: Kushanas issued numerous gold coins, indicating economic prosperity and artistic skill in die-cutting.
  • Pottery: Continued use of NBPW initially, followed by Red Ware.

7. Gupta Period (c. 4th - 6th Century CE):

• 'Golden Age' of Indian Art: Pinnacle of classical refinement, balance, and aesthetic perfection.
• Temple Architecture: Emergence of structural temples in stone and brick (e.g., Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, Bhitargaon brick temple). Development of Nagara style features.
• Sculpture: Reached classical heights. Sarnath school produced sublime Buddha images with serene expressions, transparent drapery. Mathura school continued. Terracotta art flourished.
• Metalwork: High level of skill. Famous example: Iron Pillar of Delhi (Mehrauli) – testament to advanced metallurgical knowledge (rust-resistant). Bronze images also produced (e.g., Sultanganj Buddha).
• Coinage: Beautifully executed gold coins (Dinars) with portraits of kings and deities.
• Painting: Ajanta Cave paintings (though started earlier, flourished during this period) – masterpieces of mural painting, depicting Jataka tales.
• Textiles: Known for fine textiles, mentioned in contemporary literature.

8. Medieval Period (c. 7th - 18th Century CE):

• Regional Kingdoms & Styles: Continued development of distinct regional styles in temple architecture (Nagara, Dravida, Vesara) and sculpture under Pallavas, Cholas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Hoysalas etc.
• Bronze Casting: Chola period renowned for exquisite bronze sculptures, especially Nataraja images, using the lost-wax method.
• Influence of Islamic Rule (Sultanate & Mughal):
  • Architecture: Introduction of arches, domes, minarets. Use of mortar. Inlay work (pietra dura), decorative tile work, intricate jalis (latticed screens).
  • Metalwork: Bidriware (metal inlay), enamelling (minakari).
  • Textiles: Flourishing of carpet weaving, silk brocades (Kinkhwab), fine cottons (muslin), development of various dyeing and printing techniques (e.g., Kalamkari). Patronage of workshops (Karkhanas).
  • Miniature Painting: Development of distinct schools (Mughal, Rajasthani, Pahari, Deccani).
  • Jade Carving: Patronized by Mughals.
• Continuity: Many indigenous crafts continued alongside new influences. Guilds continued to play a role, though their structure might have evolved.

Key Takeaways:

• Indian craft tradition shows remarkable continuity from ancient times.
• Crafts reflect the technological, social, religious, and aesthetic values of different periods.
• Trade played a crucial role in the dissemination and development of crafts.
• Patronage (royal, religious, community) was vital for the sustenance of crafts.
• India developed mastery over diverse materials and techniques early on.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

1. The highly polished monolithic pillars with animal capitals are a characteristic feature of which period?
   a) Harappan Period
   b) Vedic Period
   c) Mauryan Period
   d) Gupta Period

2. The 'Lost Wax' (cire perdue) technique was notably used during the Indus Valley Civilization for casting:
   a) Terracotta figurines

   • b) Steatite seals
   • c) Bronze sculptures like the 'Dancing Girl'
   • d) Standardized weights

3. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), a fine luxury pottery with a glossy surface, is associated primarily with the:

   • a) Neolithic Period
   • b) Harappan Period
   • c) Mauryan Period
   • d) Gupta Period

4. The Gandhara School of Art, known for its Greco-Roman influence, primarily used which material for sculptures?

   • a) Red Sandstone
   • b) Grey Schist
   • c) White Marble
   • d) Terracotta

5. Bead-making was a major specialized industry during the Harappan period. Which site provides significant evidence of bead factories?

   • a) Mohenjo-daro
   • b) Harappa
   • c) Chanhudaro
   • d) Sarnath

6. The Iron Pillar of Delhi (Mehrauli), known for its rust resistance, showcases the advanced metallurgical skills of the:

   • a) Mauryan Period
   • b) Kushan Period
   • c) Gupta Period
   • d) Chola Period

7. 'Shrenis' in ancient India referred to:

   • a) Religious texts
   • b) Units of land measurement
   • c) Guilds of merchants and artisans
   • d) Royal administrative officers

8. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery is generally associated with which period or culture?

   • a) Early Harappan
   • b) Mature Harappan
   • c) Later Vedic Period
   • d) Neolithic Period

9. The exquisite bronze Nataraja images are masterpieces associated with the patronage of which dynasty?

   • a) Mauryas
   • b) Guptas
   • c) Cholas
   • d) Kushanas

10. Microliths, small and refined stone tools often used in composite tools, are characteristic of the:

    • a) Paleolithic Age
    • b) Mesolithic Age
    • c) Neolithic Age
    • d) Chalcolithic Age

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. c) Mauryan Period
2. c) Bronze sculptures like the 'Dancing Girl'
3. c) Mauryan Period
4. b) Grey Schist
5. c) Chanhudaro
6. c) Gupta Period
7. c) Guilds of merchants and artisans
8. c) Later Vedic Period
9. c) Cholas
10. b) Mesolithic Age

Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Understanding the chronological development and key characteristics of crafts in each period is essential. Good luck with your preparation!