Class 12 History Notes Chapter 1 (Chapter 1) – Themes in Indian History-II Book

Alright class, let's begin our discussion on Chapter 5 from your 'Themes in Indian History - Part II' textbook, which corresponds to Chapter 1 as per your request focusing on the syllabus sequence. This chapter, titled 'Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth century)', is crucial for understanding how India was perceived by outsiders during the medieval period. These accounts offer valuable insights, but we must also read them critically.

Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth century)

I. Introduction: Why Travellers' Accounts Matter

• Medieval India (roughly 10th to 17th centuries) saw numerous visitors – merchants, pilgrims, soldiers, officials, scholars – from different parts of the world (Central Asia, West Asia, Europe).
• They left behind written accounts of their experiences and observations.
• These accounts help us reconstruct the social, cultural, economic, and political life of the period.
• Significance: Provide an 'outsider's perspective', often noticing things locals took for granted. They describe landscapes, customs, beliefs, courtly life, urban centres, etc.
• Limitations:
  • Bias: Travellers wrote from their own cultural, religious, and social backgrounds, often comparing India unfavourably with their homelands.
  • Perspective: Their interactions were often limited to specific groups (elites, merchants, specific regions), potentially skewing their understanding.
  • Language Barrier: Misunderstandings could arise due to language differences.
  • Audience: They often wrote for a specific audience back home, shaping their narrative accordingly.

II. Key Travellers and Their Observations

We will focus on three prominent travellers whose accounts are detailed in your textbook:

A. Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind (c. 11th Century)

1. Background:
   • Born in Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan) in 973 CE.
   • A polymath: proficient in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. Learned in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, etc.
   • Came to India in the wake of Mahmud of Ghazni's invasions (taken prisoner to Ghazni, then developed interest in India).
2. His Work: Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tahqiq-i-Hind - 'Enquiry into India')
   • Written in Arabic.
   • A voluminous text covering Indian religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws, and metrology.
   • Structure: Distinctive structure, generally starting with a question, followed by a description based on Sanskrit traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures.
3. Methodology & Approach:
   • Claimed a scientific approach, aiming for accuracy.
   • Relied heavily on Brahmanical Sanskrit texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali).
   • Translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic.
   • Aware of the barriers to understanding India:
     • Language: Sanskrit was vastly different from Arabic/Persian.
     • Religion: Differences in religious beliefs and practices.
     • Insularity: The self-absorption and perceived arrogance of the local population (especially Brahmans).
4. Observations on Indian Society:
   • Caste System:
     • Described the four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) based on texts.
     • Noted the concept of social pollution and the existence of antyaja (literally 'born outside' the system), who performed polluting tasks.
     • Tried to compare the Indian varna system with ancient Persian social classes (knights/princes, monks/priests, physicians/astronomers, peasants/artisans) but noted the Indian system was far more rigid.
     • Disapproved of the notion of pollution, arguing it went against the laws of nature.
   • Religion & Philosophy: Showed deep understanding of Hindu beliefs, cosmology, and philosophy, often quoting Sanskrit sources.

B. Ibn Battuta and the Rihla (c. 14th Century)

1. Background:
   • Born in Tangier, Morocco, into a learned family known for expertise in Islamic law (shari‘a).
   • An inveterate traveller, journeying extensively across North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, China, and India. Considered one of the greatest travellers of pre-modern times.
   • Valued experience over scholarly knowledge derived from books.
2. His Work: Rihla (Travelogue)
   • Written in Arabic.
   • Provides rich details about the places he visited, including India.
   • Dictated his account after returning home.
3. Experiences in India:
   • Arrived in Sind in 1333 during the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
   • Impressed the Sultan with his scholarship and was appointed Qazi (judge) of Delhi.
   • Served in the post for several years but later fell out of favour and was imprisoned; eventually restored to favour and sent as the Sultan's envoy to China.
4. Observations:
   • Cities: Described Indian cities as densely populated, prosperous, with bright and colourful markets offering a wide variety of goods. Delhi was vast, with a large population. Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) was also impressive but perhaps rivalled Delhi in size. Bazaars were centres of economic, social, and cultural activity.
   • Trade & Commerce: India was well-integrated into inter-Asian networks of trade. Indian textiles (fine muslins, silk, brocade, satin) were in great demand.
   • Agriculture: Land was very fertile due to double cropping (two crops a year).
   • Communication System: Was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system:
     • Uluq: Horse post, stationed every four miles.
     • Dawa: Foot post, with runners stationed every one-third of a mile, carrying mail quickly using bells. This system facilitated communication and dispatch of goods over long distances.
   • Unique Aspects: Described the coconut ("nut resembling a man's head") and paan (betel leaf) with great curiosity.
   • Social Customs: Noted practices like Sati (immolation of widows). Also observed slavery, noting slaves were openly sold and used for domestic labour.
   • Sense of strangeness: Often described things unfamiliar to his readers (like the coconut), highlighting the 'exotic' nature of India for outsiders.

C. Francois Bernier and the Travels in the Mogul Empire (c. 17th Century)

1. Background:
   • A Frenchman; doctor, political philosopher, and historian.
   • Came to Mughal India (1656-1668) seeking opportunities.
   • Served as physician to Prince Dara Shukoh (Shah Jahan's eldest son) and later associated with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
2. His Work: Travels in the Mogul Empire
   • Written primarily in French.
   • Dedicated to the French King Louis XIV.
   • His account became extremely popular in Europe.
3. Methodology & Approach:
   • Comparative: Constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe (especially France), generally portraying India as inferior.
   • Framework: Tried to fit his observations into a framework of binary opposition, where India was the inverse or underdeveloped version of Europe.
   • Focus: Interested in the nature of the state, land ownership, and their impact on society and economy.
4. Key Arguments & Observations:
   • Land Ownership:
     • Argued that the fundamental difference between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in India. Believed the king owned all land and distributed it among his nobles.
     • Consequences (according to Bernier): This system led to nobles having no long-term interest in land improvement, resulting in the ruin of agriculture, oppression of peasants, and decline of living standards. It also prevented the emergence of a powerful landlord class that could challenge the king. (Note: Historians now largely refute this simplistic view, pointing to evidence of various forms of land rights and ownership existing in Mughal India).
   • "Oriental Despotism": His idea of the Mughal ruler owning all land and exercising absolute authority contributed to the European concept of 'Oriental Despotism', where Asian rulers were seen as tyrants presiding over impoverished subjects.
   • Social Structure: Saw Indian society as composed of undifferentiated masses of poor people, subjugated by a small minority of rich and powerful ruling class. Claimed there was no "middle sort" of people (middle class) as in Europe.
   • Mughal Cities: Described them as "camp towns," dependent solely on the presence of the imperial court. Believed they declined rapidly when the court moved elsewhere. Contrasted them negatively with European cities like Paris and London.
   • Artisans: Depicted artisans as exploited, lacking incentive, and often forced to work for low wages or through begar (forced labour).
   • Sati: Provided detailed, often graphic, accounts of sati, emphasizing the coercion involved, though acknowledging instances of seeming willingness driven by social pressure and belief.
   • Women: Noted the labour participation of women in agriculture and crafts.
5. Influence: Bernier's writings were highly influential in shaping Western perceptions of India and the 'Orient' for centuries. Philosophers like Montesquieu used his account to develop theories of government and society (e.g., the theory of Oriental Despotism).

III. Women: Slaves, Sati, and Labour

• Travellers often commented on the condition of women, though usually from their own biased perspectives.
• Slavery: Ibn Battuta noted female slaves were used for domestic work and entertainment, often gifted by rulers. They were generally inexpensive.
• Sati: Both Ibn Battuta and Bernier described sati. Bernier, in particular, gave vivid accounts, highlighting the social pressures and sometimes forceful nature of the practice.
• Labour: Travellers noticed women's involvement in agricultural production, construction, spinning, and various crafts, indicating their significant role in the economy beyond the domestic sphere.

IV. Conclusion: Reading Travellers Critically

• Travellers' accounts are invaluable sources but must be used with caution.
• Consider the author's background, purpose, intended audience, and potential biases.
• Cross-reference information with other sources (archaeology, local literature, official documents) whenever possible.
• Recognize that they provide perceptions of society, not necessarily the complete or objective reality. They offer glimpses into specific aspects of life during a vast and complex period.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

Here are 10 questions based on the chapter for your practice:

1. Al-Biruni, the author of Kitab-ul-Hind, primarily relied on which type of sources for his information about Indian religion and philosophy?
   a) Buddhist texts
   b) Jain scriptures
   c) Brahmanical Sanskrit texts
   d) Persian court chronicles

2. Which traveller identified language, religious differences, and local insularity as major barriers to understanding India in the 11th century?
   a) Ibn Battuta
   b) Francois Bernier
   c) Al-Biruni
   d) Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi

3. The Rihla, a significant travelogue detailing experiences in the 14th-century Sultanate of Delhi, was written by:
   a) Al-Biruni
   b) Ibn Battuta
   c) Francois Bernier
   d) Marco Polo

4. Ibn Battuta described two kinds of postal systems in India: the horse-post called uluq and the foot-post called:
   a) Sarai
   b) Dawa
   c) Harkara
   d) Qasid

5. Which 17th-century European traveller argued that the absence of private property in land was a key feature of the Mughal Empire, leading to agricultural decline?
   a) Jean-Baptiste Tavernier
   b) Francois Bernier
   c) Niccolao Manucci
   d) Peter Mundy

6. Francois Bernier compared Mughal cities unfavourably with European ones, describing them primarily as:
   a) Trade emporiums
   b) Religious centres
   c) Camp towns
   d) Fortified settlements

7. The concept of "Oriental Despotism," influential in European thought, was significantly shaped by the writings of:
   a) Al-Biruni
   b) Ibn Battuta
   c) Francois Bernier
   d) Mahmud of Ghazni

8. Which traveller served as the Qazi of Delhi during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq?
   a) Al-Biruni
   b) Francois Bernier
   c) Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi
   d) Ibn Battuta

9. Al-Biruni, in his description of the Indian caste system, compared the four varnas to the social divisions in:
   a) Ancient Greece
   b) Ancient Persia
   c) The Roman Empire
   d) Contemporary Morocco

10. Which of the following observations was particularly highlighted by Ibn Battuta due to its unfamiliarity to his audience?
    a) The cultivation of wheat
    b) The use of elephants in warfare
    c) The description of coconut and paan
    d) The existence of large temples

Answer Key:

1. c) Brahmanical Sanskrit texts
2. c) Al-Biruni
3. b) Ibn Battuta
4. b) Dawa
5. b) Francois Bernier
6. c) Camp towns
7. c) Francois Bernier
8. d) Ibn Battuta
9. b) Ancient Persia
10. c) The description of coconut and paan

Study these notes carefully. Remember to focus not just on what the travellers saw, but how they interpreted it and why. Good luck with your preparation!