Class 12 History Notes Chapter 1 (Chapter 1) – Themes in Indian History-III Book

Alright class, let's get straight into Chapter 1, 'Colonialism and the Countryside', from your Themes in Indian History - Part III textbook. This chapter is crucial for understanding the economic and social impact of British rule on rural India, a frequent topic in government exams. We'll break down the key events, policies, and their consequences, focusing particularly on Bengal and the Bombay Deccan. Pay close attention to the terms, dates, and the perspectives presented.

Chapter 1: Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives

Introduction:
This chapter examines the impact of colonial rule on the Indian countryside, focusing on:

• How colonial policies reshaped land rights and social structures.
• The experiences of different groups: Zamindars, Jotedars, Ryots (peasants), Paharias, and Santhals.
• The nature and limitations of official sources (like revenue records, surveys, reports) used to reconstruct this history.

Part 1: Bengal and the Zamindars

• Context: The East India Company (EIC) consolidated its rule in Bengal after the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764). Its primary aim was to maximize revenue extraction.
• The Permanent Settlement (1793):
  • Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal.
  • Key Features:
    • Revenue demand was fixed permanently.
    • Rajas and Taluqdars were recognized as Zamindars, responsible for paying the fixed revenue to the EIC. They were revenue collectors, not technically landowners in the modern sense initially, but gained significant land rights over time.
    • Zamindars collected rent from the ryots (cultivators). The difference between what they collected and paid to the EIC was their income.
    • Sunset Law: Revenue had to be paid by sunset on the specified date, failing which the Zamindari estate could be auctioned.
  • Objectives (from the EIC's perspective):
    • Ensure a regular, stable income for the Company.
    • Create a loyal class of landowners (Zamindars) supportive of British rule.
    • Encourage Zamindars to invest in improving agriculture, assuming they would benefit from increased production under a fixed demand.
• Problems Faced by Zamindars:
  • High Initial Demand: The fixed revenue demand was set very high.
  • Agricultural Price Fluctuations: Low agricultural prices in the 1790s made it difficult for ryots to pay rent, and thus for Zamindars to pay the EIC.
  • Invariable Demand: Revenue was fixed regardless of harvest quality or price fluctuations.
  • Sunset Law: Strict enforcement led to frequent auctions of estates.
  • Limited Power: Zamindars' powers to collect rent and manage their estates were initially curtailed by the Company.
• The Rise of the Jotedars:
  • A class of rich peasants, often village headmen, who consolidated power in the villages, especially in North Bengal.
  • Sources of Power: Controlled local trade, moneylending, exercised influence over poorer cultivators (sharecroppers or adhiyars / bargadars).
  • Conflict with Zamindars: They deliberately delayed rent payments to Zamindars, encouraged ryots to do the same, and often bought up Zamindari lands auctioned by the EIC. They fiercely resisted Zamindars' attempts to increase the jama (land revenue assessment) of the village.
• Resistance by Zamindars:
  • Fictitious Sales (Benami): Transferring property to female relatives (property of women was not taken over) or servants during auctions, only to buy it back later.
  • Manipulating auctions.
  • Using musclemen (lathyals) to prevent outsiders or agents of purchasers from taking possession of auctioned estates.
  • Sometimes, the old Zamindars' ryots felt a sense of loyalty and resisted outsiders.
• The Fifth Report (1813):
  • A detailed report on the administration and activities of the East India Company in India, submitted to the British Parliament.
  • Became the basis for intense parliamentary debates on the nature of EIC rule.
  • Highlighted the perceived maladministration by the Company, the collapse of traditional Zamindari power, and the plight of ryots (though primarily focused on Zamindars).
  • Caution: It was an official report reflecting specific concerns and biases of British administration and critics of the EIC; it needs critical reading. It exaggerated the collapse of the traditional system and the loss suffered by Zamindars.

Part 2: The Hoe and the Plough (Focus on Rajmahal Hills)

• This section contrasts settled agriculture (plough) with shifting cultivation (hoe).
• The Paharias:
  • Lived in the Rajmahal Hills (present-day Jharkhand).
  • Practiced shifting cultivation (jhum), hunted, gathered forest produce, and produced charcoal. Lived a life closely connected to the forest.
  • Often raided settled agricultural communities in the plains. Chiefs received tribute to maintain peace.
  • British Policy: Initially, extermination (1770s), later pacification (under Augustus Cleveland in the 1780s) by giving allowances to chiefs to maintain order and encourage settlement (largely failed as Paharias retreated deeper into forests).
• The Santhals:
  • Were persuaded by the British to settle in the foothills of the Rajmahal Hills from the 1800s onwards.
  • Given land and encouraged to practice settled agriculture (using the plough).
  • The area demarcated for them was called Damin-i-Koh (meaning 'skirt of the hills') in 1832.
  • Cleared forests rapidly, expanded cultivation, and drove the Paharias further into the hills, leading to conflict.
• Santhal Rebellion (1855-56):
  • Causes:
    • Oppression by Zamindars (outside the Damin area) and moneylenders (dikus - outsiders) who charged exorbitant interest rates and took over land.
    • Corruption and indifference of Company officials.
    • Imposition of high taxes.
    • Loss of control over their lands and traditional ways of life.
    • Belief that they needed to create an ideal world where they would rule themselves.
  • Leadership: Led by two brothers, Sidhu Manjhi and Kanhu Manjhi.
  • Course: Attacked moneylenders, Zamindars, and symbols of Company rule. It was brutally suppressed by the British army.
  • Consequence: The British created the separate Santhal Pargana district to appease the Santhals and impose special laws to protect their land and identity, hoping to prevent future rebellion.

Part 3: A Revolt in the Countryside: The Bombay Deccan

• Context: British annexed Peshwa territories in 1818. They sought to maximize revenue here too.
• The Ryotwari Settlement:
  • Introduced in the Bombay Deccan (and Madras Presidency). Associated with administrators like Thomas Munro and Mountstuart Elphinstone.
  • Key Features:
    • Direct settlement between the state and the ryot (cultivator).
    • Revenue demand based on assessment of soil quality and estimated produce.
    • Lands were surveyed and revenue rates fixed, typically for a period of 20-30 years, after which they would be reassessed.
  • Problems:
    • Over-assessment: Revenue demand was often excessively high.
    • Rigidity: Collection was inflexible, even during crop failure or price slumps.
    • Ryots fell into debt to pay revenue.
• Increased Dependence on Moneylenders:
  • Ryots needed loans to pay revenue, buy seeds, and survive lean periods.
  • Moneylenders (often Sahukars or Marwaris) charged high interest rates and manipulated accounts.
  • Debt became a vicious cycle, leading to loss of land.
• The Cotton Boom (Early 1860s):
  • The American Civil War (1861-65) disrupted cotton supplies from America to Britain.
  • Demand for Indian cotton surged, leading to high prices and expansion of cotton cultivation in the Deccan.
  • Moneylenders readily gave advances for cotton cultivation.
  • Led to temporary prosperity for some ryots.
• The Crash (Post-1865):
  • American Civil War ended, cotton supply resumed from America.
  • Demand for Indian cotton collapsed, prices plummeted.
  • Moneylenders tightened credit, demanded repayment of old debts.
  • Simultaneously, revenue demand was increased by the government around 1867-70.
• The Deccan Riots (1875):
  • Started in Supa village (Poona district), spread to Ahmednagar and other areas.
  • Target: Primarily aimed at moneylenders (sahukars).
  • Methods: Ryots gathered, demanded debt bonds and account books, and burnt them. They often used social boycotts against moneylenders. Violence was relatively limited and focused on destroying debt records, not necessarily harming individuals physically (though some instances occurred).
• The Deccan Riots Commission:
  • Appointed by the Government of India to investigate the causes of the riots.
  • Produced a report submitted to the British Parliament in 1878.
  • Findings: Acknowledged the role of over-assessment and moneylender malpractice but largely blamed the moneylenders. Found evidence of widespread indebtedness.
  • Consequence: Led to the passage of the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act (1879), which aimed to curb moneylender power and prevent land alienation (though its effectiveness was limited).
  • Caution: Like the Fifth Report, this was an official enquiry with its own perspective, primarily aimed at restoring order and ensuring revenue collection. It interviewed officials, moneylenders, and some ryots, but its analysis reflected official biases.

Part 4: Understanding Official Sources

• The chapter relies heavily on official sources: Revenue records, survey reports (e.g., Francis Buchanan's surveys), accounts of travellers employed by the EIC, enquiry commission reports (Fifth Report, Deccan Riots Commission Report), legal records.
• Strengths: Provide detailed information on revenue, landholding, economic conditions, administrative concerns, and specific events.
• Limitations:
  • Reflect the viewpoint, concerns, and biases of the colonial officials.
  • Primarily focused on revenue and control, often ignoring the lived experiences and perspectives of ordinary people (ryots, labourers, forest dwellers).
  • Information might be selective or manipulated to justify colonial policies.
  • Need to be corroborated with other sources (like folk tales, local traditions, later nationalist accounts, archaeological data) where possible and read critically ("against the grain").

Conclusion:
Colonial rule profoundly transformed the Indian countryside. Policies like the Permanent Settlement and Ryotwari Settlement, driven by revenue maximization, disrupted existing social and economic structures, leading to indebtedness, land alienation, and peasant revolts like the Santhal Rebellion and the Deccan Riots. Official archives provide valuable data but must be interpreted carefully, recognizing their inherent biases and limitations.

Now, let's test your understanding with some Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) based on this chapter.

MCQs:

1. The Permanent Settlement of Bengal was introduced in which year?
   a) 1764
   b) 1784
   c) 1793
   d) 1813

2. Under the Permanent Settlement, the 'Sunset Law' referred to:
   a) The law prohibiting agricultural work after sunset.
   b) The deadline by which Zamindars had to pay revenue to the Company.
   c) The law granting land ownership rights to the setting sun deity.
   d) The time limit for ryots to pay rent to the Zamindar.

3. Who were the 'Jotedars' in rural Bengal during the colonial period?
   a) British revenue officials
   b) Landless labourers
   c) Wealthy peasants and village headmen
   d) Moneylenders from urban areas

4. The Fifth Report, submitted to the British Parliament in 1813, primarily focused on:
   a) The success of the Ryotwari system in Madras.
   b) The administration and activities of the East India Company in India.
   c) The customs and traditions of the Paharia tribes.
   d) The causes of the Santhal Rebellion.

5. The Paharias, inhabitants of the Rajmahal Hills, primarily practiced:
   a) Settled agriculture with ploughs
   b) Shifting cultivation (jhum)
   c) Large-scale commercial farming
   d) Cattle herding

6. The area demarcated for the Santhals in the Rajmahal region was known as:
   a) Santhal Pargana
   b) Damin-i-Koh
   c) Ryotwari Zone
   d) Zamindari Belt

7. The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) was led by:
   a) Augustus Cleveland
   b) Sidhu and Kanhu Manjhi
   c) Francis Buchanan
   d) Lord Cornwallis

8. The Ryotwari Settlement, prevalent in the Bombay Deccan, involved revenue settlement directly with:
   a) The Zamindar
   b) The Jotedar
   c) The Village Community
   d) The Ryot (cultivator)

9. The immediate trigger for the surge in cotton cultivation and prices in the Bombay Deccan in the early 1860s was:
   a) The introduction of new irrigation techniques
   b) A sudden increase in British textile production
   c) The American Civil War disrupting US cotton supplies
   d) A change in the Ryotwari revenue rates

10. The Deccan Riots Commission was appointed to investigate the causes of the agrarian unrest of:
    a) 1855
    b) 1857
    c) 1875
    d) 1895

Answer Key:

1. c) 1793
2. b) The deadline by which Zamindars had to pay revenue to the Company.
3. c) Wealthy peasants and village headmen
4. b) The administration and activities of the East India Company in India.
5. b) Shifting cultivation (jhum)
6. b) Damin-i-Koh
7. b) Sidhu and Kanhu Manjhi
8. d) The Ryot (cultivator)
9. c) The American Civil War disrupting US cotton supplies
10. c) 1875

Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Understand the connections between colonial policies, the changing rural economy, social tensions, and resistance. Remember to always critically evaluate the sources, especially the official archives discussed here. Good luck with your preparation!