class 12 notes

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 2 (Chapter 2) – Themes in Indian History-II Book

Philoid

Philoid

— 7 min read

Themes in Indian History-II
Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 2, "Kings, Farmers and Towns," which covers a vast and transformative period in Indian history, roughly from 600 BCE to 600 CE. This era witnessed the rise of powerful states, significant economic changes, and the growth of urban centres. Understanding this period is crucial for your exams as it lays the foundation for much of what follows in Indian history.

Here are the detailed notes focusing on key aspects for your preparation:

Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)

1. Introduction: The Turning Point (c. 6th Century BCE)

  • Significance: This period is often seen as a major turning point in early Indian history.
  • Key Developments:
    • Emergence of early states and empires (Mahajanapadas, Mauryan Empire).
    • Growth of cities (urbanization).
    • Increased use of iron (especially for agriculture and warfare).
    • Development of coinage.
    • Rise of new religious and philosophical ideas (Buddhism, Jainism - though detailed in Chapter 4).
  • Sources: How do we know about this period?
    • Inscriptions: Writings engraved on hard surfaces like stone, metal, or pottery. Crucial for understanding political history, administration, social norms, and religious practices. (e.g., Ashokan inscriptions).
    • Texts: Including Brahmanical texts (Dharmasutras), Buddhist texts (Tripitakas, Jatakas), Jaina texts, and later works like Kautilya's Arthashastra and Megasthenes' Indica (survives in fragments). Sangam literature provides insights into South India.
    • Coins: Punch-marked coins, Indo-Greek coins, Kushana and Gupta coins provide information on economy, rulers, and trade networks.
    • Archaeological Evidence: Remains of cities, structures, pottery (e.g., Northern Black Polished Ware - NBPW), tools, etc.

2. The Sixteen Mahajanapadas (c. 600 BCE - 400 BCE)

  • Meaning: "Maha" (great) + "Janapada" (foothold of a tribe/people). Refers to large territorial states.
  • Sources: Buddhist and Jaina texts list 16 major Mahajanapadas. Important ones include:
    • Magadha (Most powerful)
    • Koshala
    • Kuru
    • Panchala
    • Gandhara
    • Avanti
    • Vajji (A Gana/Sangha - Oligarchy)
    • Malla (Also a Gana/Sangha)
  • Features:
    • Most were ruled by kings (monarchies).
    • Some were oligarchies known as ganas or sanghas, where power was shared by a group, often rajas (e.g., Vajji).
    • Each had a capital city, often fortified.
    • Maintained standing armies and bureaucracies.
    • Collected taxes.
  • Rise of Magadha (Bihar region): Why did it become the most powerful?
    • Productive Agriculture: Located in the fertile Ganga valley.
    • Iron Mines: Accessible iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) for tools and weapons.
    • Elephants: Found in nearby forests, important component of the army.
    • Ganga Communication: Strategic location facilitating trade and communication via the river Ganga and its tributaries.
    • Ambitious Rulers: Powerful and ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda.
    • Capital Cities: Rajagaha (Rajgir - fortified) and later Pataliputra (Patna - commanding routes).

3. The Mauryan Empire (c. 321 BCE - 185 BCE): India's First Empire

  • Foundation: Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE), possibly aided by Chanakya/Kautilya (author of Arthashastra), overthrew the Nandas.
  • Extent: Vast empire stretching from Afghanistan and Baluchistan in the northwest to Bihar in the east, and southwards into the Deccan.
  • Sources:
    • Arthashastra: Treatise on statecraft, economy, and military strategy attributed to Kautilya.
    • Indica: Account by Megasthenes, Greek ambassador to Chandragupta's court (survives in fragments quoted by later Greek writers). Describes the capital Pataliputra, administration, and society.
    • Ashokan Inscriptions: Most important source. Engraved on rocks and pillars across the empire in Prakrit language using Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts (in the northwest). Deciphered by James Prinsep in the 1830s.
    • Buddhist, Jaina, and Puranic literature.
    • Archaeological finds.
  • Administration:
    • Centralized: Emperor held supreme authority.
    • Five Major Political Centres:
      1. Pataliputra (Capital)
      2. Taxila (North-western province)
      3. Ujjayini (Western province)
      4. Tosali (Eastern province - Kalinga)
      5. Suvarnagiri (Southern province - "Golden Mountain", possibly for gold mines)
    • Provincial Administration: Governed by royal princes or officials.
    • Vast Communication Network: Roads and river routes vital for control and resource mobilization. Ashoka maintained roads.
    • Military: Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees coordinating military activity (Navy, Transport/Logistics, Foot soldiers, Horses, Chariots, Elephants).
    • Officials: Mahamattas (high-ranking officials), Dhamma Mahamattas (appointed by Ashoka to spread Dhamma).
  • Ashoka (c. 268/273 BCE - 232 BCE):
    • Grandson of Chandragupta, son of Bindusara.
    • Kalinga War: Conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Odisha). The horrors of war led to a change of heart.
    • Ashoka's Dhamma: Not a specific religion, but a moral code/ethical conduct based on:
      • Respect towards elders.
      • Generosity towards Brahmanas and other sects (Shramanas).
      • Kindness to slaves and servants.
      • Religious tolerance.
      • Appointed Dhamma Mahamattas to spread the message.
      • Used inscriptions to communicate directly with his subjects.
  • Importance & Decline: The empire was vast but control was likely uneven. It began to decline after Ashoka's death (c. 185 BCE). Reasons debated: weak successors, vastness, administrative costs, provincial revolts.

4. New Notions of Kingship (Post-Mauryan Era, c. 200 BCE - 300 CE)

  • Emergence of Regional Kingdoms:
    • South: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilakam (known from Sangam literature). Chiefs derived resources from trade, warfare, and patronage of poets.
    • Deccan: Satavahanas ruled parts of western and central India. Claimed Brahmanical status but also followed rules of endogamy (marrying within kin). Made land grants.
    • North-West & North: Shakas (Central Asian origin), Kushanas (ruled a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to North India).
  • Strategies for Legitimacy: Rulers adopted various strategies to claim high status:
    • Divine Kingship: Kushana rulers adopted titles like Devaputra ("Son of God"), possibly inspired by Chinese rulers. Erected colossal statues of themselves.
    • Genealogies & Prashastis: Gupta rulers relied on histories (prashastis - eulogies composed by court poets) like the Prayaga Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of Samudragupta, composed by Harishena. These often traced divine connections or exaggerated achievements.
    • Land Grants: Granting land (often tax-free) to Brahmanas (agraharas) or religious institutions to gain allies and legitimacy. Recorded in inscriptions (often on copper plates).

5. Changing Countryside: Rural Society & Economy

  • Agricultural Expansion:
    • Iron Ploughshare: Use spread in fertile alluvial river valleys (Ganga, Kaveri). Increased productivity.
    • Paddy Transplantation: Introduced in Ganga valley, dramatically increasing yield.
    • Irrigation: Wells, tanks, and canals were developed. Communities and powerful individuals organized construction.
  • Land Ownership & Social Differences:
    • Variations: Differences in agricultural practices led to growing social differentiation.
    • Buddhist Texts: Mention landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, and large landholders (gahapati - Pali term often referring to wealthy householders/masters).
    • Sangam Texts (Tamil): Mention categories like vellalar (large landowners), uzhavar (ploughmen/ordinary farmers), and adimai (slaves).
    • Land Grants: Created new rural elites and potentially weakened royal control over land. Showed attempts to extend agriculture to new areas. Early grants were to religious figures/institutions; later, administrative grants also occurred. Women generally did not have independent access to resources like land (though Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II, is an exception).

6. Towns, Trade, and Urban Life

  • Urbanization: Many towns emerged from c. 6th century BCE onwards, often located along trade routes or as administrative/religious centres.
    • Examples: Pataliputra, Ujjayini, Mathura, Puhar (Kaveripattinam), Shravasti, Rajagaha.
    • Many were capitals of Mahajanapadas.
  • Urban Populations:
    • Kings, ruling elites lived in fortified cities.
    • Wide range of occupations: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, etc.
    • Guilds (Shrenis): Organizations of craft producers and merchants. Procured raw materials, regulated production, marketed finished goods. Sometimes acted as banks.
  • Trade: Flourishing internal and external trade.
    • Routes: Overland routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended to Central Asia. Riverine routes (like Ganga) were vital. Coastal routes connected ports.
    • Sea Trade: Extended across the Arabian Sea to East Africa and West Asia, and across the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
    • Key Players: Merchants (setthis, satthavahas), peddlers, seafarers.
    • Exports: Spices (especially pepper), fine textiles, medicinal plants, precious stones.
    • Imports: Roman gold coins (found in South India), wine, pottery from the Mediterranean; horses from Central Asia.
  • Coinage: Facilitated trade.
    • Punch-marked coins: Earliest coins (silver, copper), symbols punched onto metal. Issued by kings and possibly merchants/bankers.
    • Indo-Greek Coins: First coins bearing names and images of rulers (c. 2nd century BCE).
    • Kushana Coins: Issued first gold coins in India (c. 1st century CE), widely used. Similar in weight to contemporary Roman coins. Also issued copper coins.
    • Gupta Coins: Issued remarkable gold coins known for their purity and artistic merit (depicting rulers, deities). Later issues show decline in gold content.
    • Decline in coins after c. 600 CE possibly indicates a decline in long-distance trade, though this is debated.

7. Decipherment of Scripts & Understanding History

  • James Prinsep: Officer in the mint of the East India Company. Deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in the 1830s.
  • Brahmi: Script used in most Ashokan inscriptions. Found to be the script for Prakrit language. Decipherment revealed Ashoka as the king referred to as Piyadassi ("pleasant to behold") in the inscriptions. This linked the inscriptions to the ruler mentioned in Buddhist texts.
  • Kharosthi: Script used in inscriptions in the northwest. Deciphered using Indo-Greek coins which had names in both Greek and Kharosthi.
  • Epigraphy: The study of inscriptions. Provides invaluable direct evidence but has limitations.

8. Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

  • Technical Limits: Letters may be faintly engraved, damaged, or missing. Exact meaning of words can be uncertain.
  • Not Representative: Not everything considered politically or economically significant was recorded. Routine agricultural practices, joys and sorrows of common people rarely mentioned.
  • Bias: Inscriptions reflect the perspective of those who commissioned them (kings, elites, religious groups). They often project desired images rather than reality (e.g., prashastis exaggerating victories).
  • Survival: Only a fraction of inscriptions produced have survived.

Conclusion:

This period (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE) was foundational. It saw the consolidation of state power, significant economic diversification through agriculture and trade, the growth of complex urban societies, and the use of new tools like coinage and inscriptions, which are vital sources for historians today, despite their limitations.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

  1. Which Mahajanapada emerged as the most powerful between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE?
    a) Koshala
    b) Avanti
    c) Magadha
    d) Gandhara

  2. Who deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, crucial for understanding Ashokan inscriptions?
    a) Alexander Cunningham
    b) James Prinsep
    c) John Marshall
    d) Megasthenes

  3. The term 'Gahapati' used in Pali texts generally referred to:
    a) Landless agricultural labourers
    b) Kings of Ganas/Sanghas
    c) Wealthy householders or masters owning land/resources
    d) Buddhist monks

  4. Ashoka appointed special officials called 'Dhamma Mahamattas' primarily to:
    a) Collect revenue
    b) Lead the army
    c) Spread the message of Dhamma
    d) Oversee judicial administration

  5. The Prayaga Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) is a eulogy praising the achievements of which Gupta ruler?
    a) Chandragupta I
    b) Samudragupta
    c) Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
    d) Skandagupta

  6. Which of the following sources provides significant information about the Mauryan administration, particularly the capital city Pataliputra, although it survives only in fragments?
    a) Arthashastra
    b) Ashokan Edicts
    c) Indica by Megasthenes
    d) Jataka Tales

  7. The earliest coins issued in India, mostly made of silver and copper with symbols punched on them, are known as:
    a) Gupta gold coins (Dinars)
    b) Kushana coins
    c) Punch-marked coins
    d) Indo-Greek coins

  8. Guilds or organizations of craft producers and merchants in ancient India were known as:
    a) Mahamattas
    b) Agrahara
    c) Shrenis
    d) Janapadas

  9. Which rulers adopted the title 'Devaputra' or 'Son of God', possibly influenced by Chinese traditions?
    a) Mauryas
    b) Guptas
    c) Satavahanas
    d) Kushanas

  10. What was a major change in agricultural techniques that significantly boosted rice production, especially in the Ganga valley, during this period?
    a) Introduction of crop rotation
    b) Use of wooden ploughs
    c) Practice of paddy transplantation
    d) Development of large-scale cattle ranching

Answer Key for MCQs:

  1. c) Magadha
  2. b) James Prinsep
  3. c) Wealthy householders or masters owning land/resources
  4. c) Spread the message of Dhamma
  5. b) Samudragupta
  6. c) Indica by Megasthenes
  7. c) Punch-marked coins
  8. c) Shrenis
  9. d) Kushanas
  10. c) Practice of paddy transplantation

Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Focus on the key terms, rulers, administrative features, economic changes, and the sources used to reconstruct this history. Good luck with your preparation!

Read more