Class 12 History Notes Chapter 2 (Chapter 2) – Themes in Indian History-III Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of a very crucial chapter for your exams - Chapter 2, 'Rebels and the Raj: The Revolt of 1857 and Its Representations'. This event was a major turning point in Indian history, and understanding its nuances is essential. Here are detailed notes covering the key aspects:

Chapter 2: Rebels and the Raj – The Revolt of 1857 and Its Representations

1. Introduction: The Spark and the Flame

• The Revolt of 1857, often called the First War of Independence, Sepoy Mutiny, or the Great Rebellion, began primarily as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company's army but soon engulfed large parts of northern and central India.
• It posed a significant challenge to British rule, shaking its very foundations.

2. Pattern of the Rebellion

• The Beginning (Meerut, 10th May 1857):
  • Started in the cantonment of Meerut. Sepoys refused to use the new Enfield rifle cartridges, rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat (offensive to Hindus and Muslims respectively).
  • 85 sepoys were court-martialled for disobedience.
  • On 10th May, other sepoys mutinied, released the imprisoned comrades, killed British officers, and marched to Delhi.
• March to Delhi & Bahadur Shah Zafar:
  • Sepoys reached Delhi on 11th May 1857.
  • They proclaimed the aged Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as their leader and the Emperor of Hindustan. This gave the rebellion legitimacy and a central figurehead.
  • Delhi became the symbolic centre of the revolt.
• Spread of the Mutiny:
  • News travelled fast, triggering mutinies and uprisings across the Gangetic plain and Central India.
  • Main centres included: Delhi, Meerut, Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi, Bareilly, Arrah (Bihar).
• Lines of Communication:
  • Evidence suggests coordination and communication between sepoy lines of different cantonments (e.g., circulation of chapattis and lotus flowers before the revolt, though their exact meaning is debated).
  • Mutinies followed a similar pattern: sepoys seized arms, plundered the treasury, attacked government buildings (jails, courts, telegraph offices), and targeted symbols of British authority.
• Leaders and Followers:
  • Nana Sahib: Adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II; led the revolt at Kanpur. Denied his pension by the British.
  • Rani Lakshmibai: Ruler of Jhansi; fought valiantly after her adopted son was denied succession under the Doctrine of Lapse.
  • Begum Hazrat Mahal: Wife of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh; led the revolt in Lucknow.
  • Kunwar Singh: An old zamindar from Arrah in Bihar; nursed grievances against the British land revenue policies.
  • Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: A religious leader who played a significant role in Faizabad; seen as a key propagator of the rebellion.
  • Shah Mal: Led the Barout pargana (Uttar Pradesh) villagers against the British.
  • Gonoo: A tribal cultivator from Singhbhum in Chotanagpur.
  • Ordinary people – peasants, zamindars, artisans, religious figures – joined the sepoys, turning it into a widespread popular revolt in many areas.

3. Causes of the Revolt (Why People Rebelled)

• Political Causes:
  • Annexation Policies: Subsidiary Alliance (Lord Wellesley), Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie) led to the annexation of numerous states (Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi).
  • Annexation of Awadh (1856): Deeply resented, especially as many sepoys came from Awadh. Displaced the Nawab, taluqdars, officials, and retainers.
  • Loss of power and prestige for Indian rulers and chiefs.
• Economic Causes:
  • Land Revenue Policies: Ruined peasants and zamindars (e.g., Summary Settlement of 1856 in Awadh dispossessed many taluqdars).
  • Heavy taxation.
  • Destruction of traditional industries and handicrafts due to competition from British manufactured goods.
• Socio-Religious Causes:
  • Fear of Conversion: Activities of Christian missionaries fueled suspicion.
  • Racial Discrimination: Indians were treated as inferior.
  • Reforms Seen as Interference: Laws like abolition of Sati (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856) were seen by orthodox sections as attacks on traditional Indian society and religion.
  • Rumours: The greased cartridges incident was the immediate trigger, confirming fears about a plot to destroy caste and religion. Rumours about bone dust mixed in flour also circulated.
• Military Causes:
  • Discrimination: Indian sepoys faced discrimination in pay, promotions, and treatment compared to British soldiers.
  • General Service Enlistment Act (1856): Required sepoys to serve overseas if needed, which violated Hindu religious beliefs (crossing the sea meant loss of caste).
  • Greased Cartridges: The immediate cause that ignited the simmering discontent.

4. What the Rebels Wanted: Vision of Unity and Alternative Power

• Rejection of British Rule: Rebels sought to overthrow the 'firangi raj'.
• Restoration of Pre-British Order: Often looked back to the pre-British eighteenth century, seeking to restore rulers like the Mughal Emperor, Nawabs, and Peshwas.
• Visions of Unity:
  • Rebel proclamations (like the Azamgarh Proclamation, 25 August 1857) stressed Hindu-Muslim unity against the common enemy.
  • Bahadur Shah Zafar appealed to both communities. Religious sentiments were invoked, but often inclusively (e.g., proclamations issued in the name of both Muhammad and Mahavir).
  • Despite tensions, a sense of shared oppression fostered unity during the revolt.
• The Azamgarh Proclamation: Articulated grievances of various sections (zamindars, merchants, public servants, artisans, pandits, fakirs) and promised a better future under restored Indian rule.

5. Suppression of the Uprising

• British Response:
  • Passed new laws to facilitate suppression (e.g., allowing trials and punishments by ordinary Britons, declaring death penalty for rebels).
  • Brought in troops from Britain and deployed the army on a massive scale.
  • Used overwhelming force and brutality.
• Military Operations:
  • Recapture of Delhi (September 1857): A long and difficult siege. Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, tried, and exiled to Rangoon. His sons were brutally killed.
  • Recapture of Lucknow (March 1858): Required fierce fighting.
  • Recapture of Jhansi (June 1858): Rani Lakshmibai died fighting.
  • Leaders like Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal escaped to Nepal. Kunwar Singh and Maulvi Ahmadullah died fighting.
• Scale of Retribution:
  • Widespread executions (hanging, blowing from cannons).
  • Villages burnt, populations massacred. Aimed at creating terror to prevent future uprisings.

6. Images of the Revolt: Representations

• British Representations:
  • Paintings: Joseph Noel Paton's "In Memoriam" (depicting English women and children huddled in fear, implying rebel brutality), Thomas Jones Barker's "The Relief of Lucknow" (celebrating British heroes like Campbell, Outram, Havelock). Miss Wheeler defending herself against sepoys at Kanpur was another common theme, portraying British invincibility and honour.
  • Sketches and Cartoons: Often depicted rebels as barbaric, treacherous, and beastly. Punch cartoons mocked Indian leaders.
  • Writings: Accounts emphasized sepoy treachery and violence, justifying British suppression and reinforcing notions of racial superiority.
• Indian Representations:
  • Nationalist Imagination: Later, Indian nationalists reinterpreted the revolt as the First War of Independence. Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai were celebrated as icons of resistance.
  • Folk Memory: Poems, songs (like "Khoob ladi mardani woh toh Jhansi wali rani thi" by Subhadra Kumari Chauhan), and local traditions kept the memory of the revolt alive, often focusing on heroism and sacrifice.

7. Consequences of the Revolt

• End of Company Rule: The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act, 1858, transferring power from the East India Company to the British Crown.
• Direct Rule: A Secretary of State for India was appointed in the British Cabinet, assisted by an India Council. The Governor-General was now also the Viceroy (representative of the Crown).
• Reorganisation of the Army: Proportion of British soldiers increased. Crucial branches like artillery were placed exclusively in European hands. Policy of 'divide and rule' implemented by recruiting from 'martial races' (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans) who had largely remained loyal, and reducing recruitment from Awadh and Bihar.
• Policy towards Indian States: Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned. Princes were assured their territories, but their subordinate position to the British Crown was emphasized ('Paramountcy').
• Policy towards Society: British became more cautious about interfering in Indian religious and social customs.
• Widened Racial Gulf: Mutual suspicion and bitterness between Britons and Indians increased significantly.
• Rise of Nationalism: The memory of 1857 served as a source of inspiration for the later Indian nationalist movement.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Where did the Revolt of 1857 begin on May 10th?
   (a) Delhi
   (b) Lucknow
   (c) Meerut
   (d) Kanpur

2. Who was proclaimed the leader of the Revolt of 1857 by the sepoys in Delhi?
   (a) Nana Sahib
   (b) Bahadur Shah Zafar
   (c) Rani Lakshmibai
   (d) Kunwar Singh

3. The policy of 'Doctrine of Lapse' was introduced by which Governor-General?
   (a) Lord Wellesley
   (b) Lord Dalhousie
   (c) Lord Canning
   (d) Lord Bentinck

4. Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt in which major centre?
   (a) Jhansi
   (b) Kanpur
   (c) Arrah
   (d) Lucknow

5. What was the immediate cause for the start of the Revolt of 1857?
   (a) Annexation of Awadh
   (b) Introduction of the Enfield Rifle with greased cartridges
   (c) General Service Enlistment Act
   (d) Heavy land revenue demands

6. The Azamgarh Proclamation, issued during the revolt, primarily aimed to:
   (a) Declare war against Britain only
   (b) Outline the grievances of various sections and promote unity
   (c) Seek help from foreign powers
   (d) Establish a new legal system immediately

7. Which British painting depicted English women and children huddled together, signifying vulnerability and rebel brutality?
   (a) The Relief of Lucknow
   (b) In Memoriam
   (c) Miss Wheeler Defending Herself
   (d) The Last Effort and Fall of Tippoo Sultan

8. Which of the following was a major consequence of the Revolt of 1857?
   (a) The East India Company gained more administrative powers.
   (b) The British decided to leave India immediately.
   (c) Power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown.
   (d) The Mughal empire was fully restored.

9. Kunwar Singh, a prominent leader of the revolt, belonged to:
   (a) Awadh
   (b) Rohilkhand
   (c) Bihar (Arrah)
   (d) Central India

10. After the suppression of the revolt, the British army was reorganised with a policy that favoured recruitment from:
    (a) Awadh and Bihar regiments
    (b) South Indian regiments
    (c) 'Martial races' like Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Pathans
    (d) Bengali regiments

Answer Key:

1. (c) Meerut
2. (b) Bahadur Shah Zafar
3. (b) Lord Dalhousie
4. (d) Lucknow
5. (b) Introduction of the Enfield Rifle with greased cartridges
6. (b) Outline the grievances of various sections and promote unity
7. (b) In Memoriam
8. (c) Power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown.
9. (c) Bihar (Arrah)
10. (c) 'Martial races' like Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Pathans

Make sure you revise these points thoroughly. Pay attention to the names, places, causes, and consequences, as these are frequent areas for questions in government exams. Understanding the different perspectives and representations of the revolt is also crucial. Good luck with your preparation!