class 12 notes

Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 (Chapter 3) – Themes in Indian History-II Book

Philoid

Philoid

— 8 min read

Themes in Indian History-II
Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 3, 'Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)'. This period witnessed significant transformations in economic and political life, which invariably impacted social structures. We'll be exploring how norms of family, marriage, social hierarchy (like caste), and access to resources were shaped and often contested during this era. Our primary textual focus will often be the Mahabharata, alongside Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras, Buddhist texts, and inscriptions.

Detailed Notes for Chapter 3: Kinship, Caste and Class (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)

1. The Mahabharata: A Window into Social Norms

  • Critical Edition: A monumental project initiated in 1919 under the leadership of V.S. Sukthankar and his team.
    • Objective: To prepare a critical edition by comparing Sanskrit manuscripts from across India.
    • Method: Identifying verses common to most versions and publishing them in the main text, with variations documented in footnotes and appendices.
    • Findings: Revealed remarkable regional variations in the epic, but also underlined common elements, particularly in manuscripts from North India (Kashmir, Nepal) to South India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu). This suggests both shared traditions and localized adaptations.
  • Content: The Mahabharata contains vivid descriptions of social norms, conflicts, and values prevalent during its composition period (broadly c. 500 BCE - 400 CE). It includes:
    • Narrative Sections: Stories, accounts of events.
    • Didactic Sections: Prescriptions about social norms, often included later. The Bhagavadgita is the most acclaimed didactic section.
  • Significance for Historians: Provides insights into prescribed social rules (what should be done) and descriptions of actual social practices (what people did), highlighting the complexities and sometimes contradictions within society.

2. Kinship, Family, and Marriage Rules

  • Family and Kinship:
    • Families varied in size, composition, and relationships. Often part of larger networks of kin (relatives).
    • Kinfolk: Defined culturally; specific terms used for relatives.
    • Patriliny: System where descent is traced through the father, and sons inherit resources (throne, property). Prevalent among elite families, as depicted in the Mahabharata's central conflict over land and power.
      • Ideal vs. Reality: While patriliny was the ideal, variations existed (e.g., brother succeeding in some cases, importance of maternal relatives).
    • Matriliny: System where descent is traced through the mother (less common in the sources for this period, but not absent).
  • Rules of Marriage: Codified in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras (compiled c. 500 BCE onwards).
    • Endogamy: Marriage within the unit (kin, caste, group in same locality). Preferred practice.
    • Exogamy: Marriage outside the unit. Particularly important concerning the gotra.
    • Gotra System (from c. 1000 BCE):
      • Practiced by Brahmanas. Each gotra named after a Vedic seer.
      • Rule 1: Women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt their husband's upon marriage.
      • Rule 2: Members of the same gotra could not marry.
      • Evidence of Variation: Satavahana rulers (c. 2nd BCE - 2nd CE) present a challenge. Some rulers had names derived from mother's gotra (e.g., Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani). Some Satavahana queens retained their father's gotra. Some inscriptions show endogamous marriages within the same gotra, violating Brahmanical rules. This indicates regional variations and resistance/alternative practices, especially in the Deccan.
    • Forms of Marriage: Dharmashastras recognized 8 forms. The first four were considered 'good' (including Kanyadana - gift of a daughter), the remaining were condemned. This suggests diverse marriage practices existed, some of which were not approved by Brahmanical authorities.
    • Polygyny: Practice of a man having multiple wives (common among ruling elites).
    • Polyandry: Practice of a woman having multiple husbands (rare, but famously depicted with Draupadi in the Mahabharata, suggesting it might have existed, perhaps in Himalayan regions or during crises).

3. Social Differences: Caste and Class

  • The Varna Order: Brahmanical texts prescribed a hierarchical social order based on four Varnas:
    • Brahmanas: Priests, scholars. Expected to study/teach Vedas, perform sacrifices. Highest status.
    • Kshatriyas: Warriors, rulers. Expected to wage war, protect people, administer justice, get sacrifices performed.
    • Vaishyas: Farmers, pastoralists, traders. Expected engage in agriculture, trade, animal husbandry.
    • Shudras: Served the upper three Varnas. Assigned only servitude.
  • Justification & Enforcement:
    • Divine Origin: Claimed the system was divinely ordained (citing the Purusha Sukta from Rigveda).
    • Prescribed Occupations: Based on birth.
    • Royal Enforcement: Advised kings to ensure adherence to Varna norms within their kingdoms.
    • Stories & Epics: Reinforced Varna ideology (e.g., stories in Mahabharata).
  • Challenges to the Varna Order:
    • Non-Kshatriya Kings: Many powerful dynasties had origins challenging the norm that only Kshatriyas could rule.
      • Mauryas: Debated origins, possibly 'low'.
      • Shungas & Kanvas: Successors to Mauryas, were Brahmanas.
      • Satavahanas: Claimed to be Brahmanas but also destroyed Kshatriya pride. Practiced marriage norms contrary to Brahmanical texts.
      • Shakas: Central Asian origin, regarded as mlechchhas (barbarians/outsiders) by Brahmanas. Yet, rulers like Rudradaman rebuilt Sudarshana lake, showing familiarity with Sanskrit traditions.
    • This indicates political power was often open to those with resources and support, regardless of birth, though rulers often tried to claim higher Varna status later.
  • Jatis:
    • Beyond the four Varnas, society had numerous jatis.
    • Unlike the fixed number of Varnas (four), there was no restriction on the number of jatis.
    • Jatis were often based on occupation (e.g., goldsmiths, weavers, potters). Sometimes organized into shrenis (guilds).
    • Where new groups emerged (e.g., forest dwellers like nishadas, occupational specialists) that didn't fit the Varna system, they were often classified as a jati.
    • Jatis shared a common feature: hierarchy. Some jatis were considered higher or lower than others.
  • Beyond the Four Varnas: Untouchability:
    • Some activities were considered 'polluting' by Brahmanas (e.g., handling corpses, dead animals). Those performing these tasks were designated as 'untouchables' or Chandalas.
    • Placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy, outside the Varna system.
    • Subjected to severe social disabilities: Lived outside the village, used discarded utensils, wore clothes of the dead, couldn't walk about villages/cities at night.
    • Manusmriti lays down harsh duties for Chandalas.
    • Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian (5th Century CE) observed that untouchables had to strike a clapper in the streets to announce their presence.
    • These norms were often questioned and resisted, as seen in Buddhist texts which rejected claims of inherent superiority based on birth.

4. Beyond Birth: Resources and Status

  • Gendered Access to Property:
    • According to Dharmasutras/Shastras, patrilineal inheritance was the norm for major resources (land, cattle).
    • Father's property was generally inherited by sons, with the eldest sometimes getting a special share.
    • Women couldn't claim a share of paternal estate.
    • Stridhana ("Woman's Wealth"): Women could retain gifts received during marriage. This could be inherited by her children, without the husband having a claim.
    • However, texts like Manusmriti warned against hoarding family property or valuables without the husband's permission.
    • Epigraphic and textual evidence suggests upper-class women (like Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta) might have had access to resources, including land, but this was likely exceptional.
  • Varna and Access to Property:
    • Varna system correlated closely with access to wealth.
    • Brahmanas and Kshatriyas were generally the wealthiest.
    • While Vaishyas were associated with wealth through trade/agriculture, Shudras had the least access, primarily limited to servitude.
    • Buddhist Critique: Buddhist texts recognized social differences but critiqued hierarchy based on birth. They offered alternative paths to status based on kamma (karma/action) and accumulation of merit, not birthright. They also depicted a wider range of wealthy individuals beyond the top two Varnas.
  • Alternative Social Scenario: Sharing Wealth (Tamilakam):
    • In the Tamilakam region (ancient Tamil country), Sangam literature (compiled c. 300 BCE - 300 CE) depicts a different social dynamic.
    • Focus on chiefs (velir) who gained support through warfare and patronage.
    • Wealth was not solely based on Varna; generosity and resource distribution were key.
    • Chiefs were patrons of bards and poets who sang their praises. Distribution of resources (booty from raids, produce) was crucial for maintaining status. Emphasis on sharing rather than just accumulation based on prescribed hierarchy.

5. Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract?

  • Brahmanical View: Varna order is of divine origin, permanent, and natural.
  • Buddhist View: Rejected divine origin. Offered an alternative explanation in texts like the Sutta Pitaka.
    • Proposed that initially, humans lived in harmony. Over time, greed, deceit, and private property emerged, leading to conflict.
    • People then chose a leader (mahasammata - the great elect) to establish order, offering him a portion of their produce (taxes) in return for protection and justice.
    • This suggests kingship (and by extension, social hierarchy) was based on human choice/social contract, not divinity, and was dependent on the ruler fulfilling his duties. It implies the possibility of changing the system if the ruler becomes unjust.

6. Historians and the Mahabharata

  • Language & Content: Primarily Sanskrit, though accessible versions exist. Clear distinction between narrative and didactic sections helps historians understand different layers of the text.
  • Authorship & Dating:
    • Traditionally attributed to sage Vyasa.
    • Likely composed over a long period (c. 500 BCE - 400 CE) by multiple authors.
    • Core story might reflect memories of chiefdoms/kingdoms around 1000 BCE. Didactic sections added later.
  • Search for Convergence:
    • Archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated at Hastinapura (identified with a site in Meerut, UP) in the 1950s.
    • Found evidence of settlement (Level II, c. 12th-7th centuries BCE) with specific house types (mud-plaster walls, reed walls) and material culture. This level doesn't match the grand descriptions of the city in the epic.
    • Level III (c. 6th-3rd centuries BCE) showed more developed structures but still modest compared to epic descriptions.
    • Lal noted similarities between descriptions of houses in the epic (e.g., the house of lac) and archaeological finds, but the correlation remains tentative.
    • The epic is best understood as a dynamic text reflecting social values and norms over centuries, not necessarily a literal historical account of a single event or period.

Key Terms:

  • Patriliny: Tracing descent and inheritance through the male line.
  • Matriliny: Tracing descent through the female line.
  • Endogamy: Marriage within a defined group (e.g., caste, kin).
  • Exogamy: Marriage outside a defined group (e.g., outside one's gotra).
  • Polygyny: A man having multiple wives.
  • Polyandry: A woman having multiple husbands.
  • Gotra: Lineage group among Brahmanas, named after Vedic seers; used to regulate marriage.
  • Varna: The four-fold hierarchical social order (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) prescribed in Brahmanical texts.
  • Jati: Literally 'birth'; refers to numerous hierarchical social categories, often linked to occupation, existing beyond/within the Varna framework.
  • Stridhana: A woman's wealth, typically gifts received at marriage, over which she had control.
  • Didactic: Sections of a text containing instruction or moral lessons (e.g., norms of behaviour).
  • Narrative: Sections of a text that tell a story.
  • Purusha Sukta: A hymn in the Rigveda describing the origin of the Varna system from the sacrifice of a primeval being.
  • Chandala: Term used for those considered 'untouchable', performing tasks deemed polluting.
  • Nishada: Forest-dwelling communities, sometimes integrated as a low-status jati (e.g., Ekalavya).
  • Mlechchha: Term used for outsiders or barbarians, those not following Brahmanical norms.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

  1. The critical edition of the Mahabharata, a massive scholarly project, was initiated under the leadership of:
    a) B.B. Lal
    b) James Prinsep
    c) V.S. Sukthankar
    d) D.C. Sircar

  2. According to Brahmanical texts (Dharmasutras/Shastras), the system of tracing descent through the father's line is known as:
    a) Matriliny
    b) Endogamy
    c) Patriliny
    d) Exogamy

  3. The Brahmanical practice of classifying people into groups named after Vedic seers, primarily to regulate marriage, is known as the:
    a) Varna system
    b) Jati system
    c) Gotra system
    d) Ashrama system

  4. Which ruling dynasty challenged Brahmanical norms by having rulers named after their mother's gotra and practicing endogamy within kin groups?
    a) Mauryas
    b) Guptas
    c) Satavahanas
    d) Kushanas

  5. The Purusha Sukta, often cited to justify the Varna system, is found in which ancient text?
    a) Manusmriti
    b) Mahabharata
    c) Rigveda
    d) Arthashastra

  6. Which term refers to social categories based often on occupation, existing beyond the four Varnas, and organized hierarchically?
    a) Gotra
    b) Kula
    c) Shreni
    d) Jati

  7. The Manusmriti lays down specific duties for 'Chandalas'. Which of the following was NOT typically prescribed for them?
    a) Living outside the village
    b) Using discarded utensils
    c) Wearing new clothes provided by villagers
    d) Serving as executioners

  8. What is 'Stridhana' according to the Dharmashastras?
    a) Land inherited by women from their fathers
    b) Wealth given to a woman at her marriage, over which she had rights
    c) Taxes collected exclusively from women
    d) A share in the husband's ancestral property

  9. Which alternative theory, found in Buddhist texts like the Sutta Pitaka, explains the origin of kingship and social hierarchy?
    a) Divine creation by Brahma
    b) A result of military conquest alone
    c) A social contract chosen by people to ensure order
    d) An evolution from tribal chieftainships without social consent

  10. Archaeologist B.B. Lal's excavations at Hastinapura aimed to:
    a) Find evidence of the Indus Valley Civilization
    b) Uncover Buddhist monasteries described by Xuan Zang
    c) Discover the palace of Chandragupta Maurya
    d) Assess the archaeological basis of the Mahabharata narrative

Answer Key for MCQs:

  1. (c) V.S. Sukthankar
  2. (c) Patriliny
  3. (c) Gotra system
  4. (c) Satavahanas
  5. (c) Rigveda
  6. (d) Jati
  7. (c) Wearing new clothes provided by villagers (They were expected to wear clothes of the dead or discarded items)
  8. (b) Wealth given to a woman at her marriage, over which she had rights
  9. (c) A social contract chosen by people to ensure order
  10. (d) Assess the archaeological basis of the Mahabharata narrative

Remember to cross-reference these notes with the NCERT textbook itself for a complete understanding. Focus on the interplay between prescribed norms and actual social practices, and the ways historians use diverse sources to reconstruct this complex past. Good luck with your preparation!

Read more