Class 12 History Notes Chapter 3 (Kinship; caste and class: early societies) – Themes in Indian History-I Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 3, "Kinship, Caste and Class," from your Themes in Indian History-I book. This chapter is crucial for understanding the social fabric of early Indian societies, roughly between 600 BCE and 600 CE. Pay close attention, as the concepts discussed here often form the basis for questions in competitive exams.

We primarily use textual traditions, like the Mahabharata, along with Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, to reconstruct this period's social history. Remember, these texts often reflect the perspectives of their authors, mainly Brahmanas, and present prescriptive norms that may not always mirror reality.

Detailed Notes: Chapter 3 - Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)

1. The Mahabharata: A Window into Social Norms

• Context: A colossal epic (over 100,000 verses) depicting a conflict over land and power between two groups of cousins – the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
• Composition: Traditionally attributed to sage Vyasa, but likely composed over a long period (c. 500 BCE - 500 CE) by multiple authors. It started perhaps as a smaller story (Jaya) and grew over time.
• Content: Contains narratives, but also large sections on social norms, codes of conduct, and didactic material. It reflects prevailing social values and the complexities/contradictions within them.
• Critical Edition: A major scholarly project led by V.S. Sukthankar (started 1919) aimed to create a definitive version by comparing manuscripts from across India. This revealed regional variations but also common elements, highlighting the epic's widespread influence.
• Significance for Historians: Used cautiously, it provides insights into kinship relations, social hierarchies, political ideas, and ethical dilemmas of the period. It shows both the prescribed norms and instances where they were challenged or adapted.

2. Kinship and Marriage: Defining Family and Relations

• Kinship: Refers to relationships based on blood (consanguineal) or marriage (affinal). Essential for social organization.
• Patriliny:
  • The dominant system emphasized in texts like the Mahabharata.
  • Descent traced through the father; sons inherit property and continue the lineage.
  • Daughters had no claim to paternal estate but were expected to marry outside the kin group (exogamy).
  • Kanyadana (gift of a daughter in marriage) was considered an important religious duty for the father.
• Rules of Marriage:
  • Endogamy: Marriage within a defined group (e.g., caste, kin group).
  • Exogamy: Marriage outside a unit (e.g., gotra). Brahmanical texts strongly advocated gotra exogamy for upper varnas.
  • Polygyny: A man having multiple wives (common among rulers and elites).
  • Polyandry: A woman having multiple husbands (rare, but famously practiced by Draupadi in the Mahabharata, suggesting variations existed).
• The Gotra System (Post-Vedic Development, c. 1000 BCE onwards):
  • Practiced by Brahmanas. Classified people based on descent from a common Vedic seer (rishi).
  • Two Key Rules:
    1. Women were expected to adopt their husband's gotra upon marriage.
    2. Members of the same gotra could not marry (Gotra Exogamy).
  • Evidence of Variation: Inscriptions (e.g., Satavahana rulers in the Deccan) show deviations. Some Satavahana queens retained their father's gotra, and some rulers practiced endogamy within the kin group, contrary to Brahmanical rules. Some rulers were polygynous. Satavahana rulers also used matronymics (names derived from the mother, like Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani), though succession remained patrilineal. This suggests Brahmanical norms weren't universally followed.

3. Social Differences: Caste and the Varna Order

• Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras: Sanskrit texts compiled by Brahmanas (c. 500 BCE onwards) laying down codes of social behaviour and norms.
• The Varna Order: These texts prescribed a hierarchical social order with four categories (varnas):
  1. Brahmanas: Highest status. Expected to study/teach Vedas, perform sacrifices, give/receive gifts.
  2. Kshatriyas: Expected to engage in warfare, protect people, administer justice, study Vedas, get sacrifices performed. Rulers ideally came from this varna.
  3. Vaishyas: Expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism, trade, study Vedas, get sacrifices performed.
  4. Shudras: Assigned only one occupation – serving the three higher varnas. Denied access to Vedas and sacrifices.
• Justification: Brahmanas claimed this order was of divine origin (citing hymns like the Purusha Sukta from the Rigveda).
• Enforcement Strategies:
  • Asserting divine origin.
  • Advising kings to uphold the order within their kingdoms.
  • Persuading people that status was determined by birth (ascribed status).
• Challenges to the System:
  • Not everyone fit neatly (e.g., forest dwellers, nomads, occupational groups like goldsmiths, weavers - often classified as jatis).
  • Non-Kshatriya Rulers: Many ruling dynasties had different origins (e.g., Mauryas - debated origins, Shungas/Kanvas - Brahmanas, Shakas - considered mlechchhas or outsiders, Satavahanas - claimed Brahmana status but also married into Shaka families). This shows mobility and fluidity despite the rigid ideal.
  • Buddhist texts often rejected claims of status based on birth and offered alternative social perspectives.

4. Beyond the Four Varnas: Jatis and Untouchability

• Jatis: Social categories based on birth, often linked to occupations. Unlike the fixed four varnas, the number of jatis was not fixed and varied. When Brahmanas encountered new groups (e.g., nishadas or forest dwellers, suvarnakaras or goldsmiths) not fitting the varna system, they were often classified as jatis. Jatis sharing an occupation sometimes organized into shrenis (guilds).
• Untouchability: Certain activities, especially those involving handling dead bodies or "polluting" tasks, were considered impure. Those performing these tasks were designated as "untouchables" or asprishya.
  • Chandalas: Placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy. Duties included handling corpses and dead animals.
  • Lived outside the village, used discarded utensils, wore clothes of the dead and iron ornaments.
  • Had to sound clappers in streets to announce their presence so others could avoid "polluting" contact.
  • Accounts by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims (Fa Xian, Xuan Zang) confirm their segregated existence.
• Perspectives: While Brahmanical texts prescribed these norms, non-Brahmanical texts sometimes offered different views, questioning the idea of inherent pollution.

5. Gendered Access to Property

• Patrilineal Norms: According to Dharmashastras (e.g., Manusmriti), the paternal estate was inherited by sons, with a special share for the eldest.
• Women's Property Rights:
  • Women could not claim a share of the paternal estate.
  • They were allowed to retain gifts received during marriage – known as stridhana (woman's wealth). This could include movable property like jewellery, clothes, money.
  • This stridhana could be inherited by their children, without the husband having a claim on it.
  • However, texts warned women against hoarding family property or valuables without the husband's permission.
• Evidence Variation: While texts restricted women, epigraphic and textual evidence suggests upper-class women (like Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta) sometimes had access to resources like land, though this might have been exceptional.

6. Explaining Social Differences: Alternative Perspectives

• Brahmanical View: Status based on birth and divine will, linked to the Varna system.
• Buddhist Critique:
  • Rejected status based on birth.
  • Recognized social differences but suggested they were not natural or rigid.
  • Offered an alternative explanation (in texts like the Sutta Pitaka) suggesting that institutions like private property and kingship emerged gradually as humans became greedy and deceitful, requiring systems to manage society. This implies social structures are human-made and potentially changeable.

7. Historians and Texts

• Historians analyse texts considering:
  • Language (Pali, Prakrit, Tamil for common people; Sanskrit for priests/elites).
  • Type of text (narrative, didactic, mantra).
  • Author's perspective and intended audience.
  • Date and place of composition.
• The Mahabharata, being complex and layered, requires careful interpretation to understand the social dynamics it reflects.

Key Takeaways for Exams:

• Understand the key terms: Patriliny, Exogamy, Endogamy, Gotra, Varna, Jati, Stridhana, Mlechchha, Chandala.
• Know the four Varnas and their prescribed occupations.
• Be aware of the prescriptive nature of Dharmashastras vs. actual social practices (e.g., Satavahana examples).
• Understand the significance of the Mahabharata as a source and the Critical Edition project.
• Note the Brahmanical justification for caste and the Buddhist critique.
• Remember the rules regarding property, especially for women (stridhana).
• Be familiar with the concept and treatment of "untouchables" (Chandalas).

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. The massive project of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata was initiated in 1919 under the leadership of:
   a) R.D. Banerji
   b) V.S. Sukthankar
   c) B.B. Lal
   d) James Prinsep

2. According to Brahmanical texts around c. 1000 BCE, the 'Gotra' system classified people based on descent from:
   a) A common ancestor king
   b) A specific village deity
   c) A Vedic seer (rishi)
   d) A particular occupational guild

3. Which rule regarding marriage was strongly advocated by Brahmanical norms concerning Gotras?
   a) Endogamy (marrying within the same gotra)
   b) Exogamy (marrying outside one's gotra)
   c) Polygyny (marrying multiple wives from the same gotra)
   d) Levirate (marrying the deceased husband's brother)

4. The term 'Stridhana' in early Indian society referred to:
   a) Land granted to women by the king
   b) The wealth a woman could retain, often received at her marriage
   c) A share in the paternal agricultural produce
   d) Taxes collected exclusively from women traders

5. According to the Dharmashastras, which Varna was primarily assigned the task of serving the other three higher varnas?
   a) Brahmana
   b) Kshatriya
   c) Vaishya
   d) Shudra

6. The Satavahana rulers in the Deccan provide evidence challenging strict Brahmanical norms because:
   a) They strictly followed gotra exogamy without exception.
   b) They completely abolished the Varna system.
   c) Some queens retained their natal gotra names after marriage, and rulers practiced endogamy.
   d) They only appointed Brahmanas as administrators.

7. In the context of the Varna order, people considered outside the system or 'outsiders', like the Shakas, were often termed by Brahmanas as:
   a) Nishadas
   b) Jatis
   c) Mlechchhas
   d) Shrenis

8. The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras identified certain groups performing 'polluting' tasks, like handling corpses, as 'untouchables'. Which group is specifically mentioned as being placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy?
   a) Vaishyas
   b) Nishadas
   c) Chandalas
   d) Suvarnakaras

9. Which religious tradition offered a critique of the Varna system, rejecting claims of status based solely on birth?
   a) Brahmanism
   b) Buddhism
   c) Shaivism
   d) Vaishnavism

10. The central narrative of the Mahabharata revolves around a conflict between two sets of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, primarily over:
    a) Religious doctrines
    b) Control of trade routes
    c) Land and political power
    d) Succession based on matriliny

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. b) V.S. Sukthankar
2. c) A Vedic seer (rishi)
3. b) Exogamy (marrying outside one's gotra)
4. b) The wealth a woman could retain, often received at her marriage
5. d) Shudra
6. c) Some queens retained their natal gotra names after marriage, and rulers practiced endogamy.
7. c) Mlechchhas
8. c) Chandalas
9. b) Buddhism
10. c) Land and political power

Study these notes thoroughly. Remember to correlate them with the text in your NCERT book, especially the boxed information and source excerpts. Good luck with your preparation!