Class 12 History Notes Chapter 4 (Chapter 4) – Themes in Indian History-III Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 4: 'Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond'. This is a crucial chapter, not just for understanding modern Indian history but also because it frequently features in government exams. We'll focus on the key events, personalities, and concepts surrounding Gandhiji's leadership in the freedom struggle.

Chapter 4: Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond - Detailed Notes

1. Introduction: A Leader Announces Himself

• Gandhi's Return: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in January 1915. His experiences in South Africa, where he experimented with Satyagraha (truth force/passive resistance) against racial discrimination, had already made him a known figure.
• Context of Indian Nationalism: Indian nationalism was gaining ground, but the Congress party was largely limited to the urban elite. The political scene included Moderates, Extremists, and nascent revolutionary groups.
• Gokhale's Advice: On the advice of his political mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Gandhi spent his first year travelling across India to understand the land and its people, refraining from taking public stances.
• First Public Appearance: His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. He criticized the elite gathering, highlighting the absence and plight of the millions of poor Indians, setting the tone for his future politics focused on the masses.

2. Early Campaigns (1917-1918): Localised Satyagrahas

• These campaigns established Gandhi's method and reputation in India.
• Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
  • Issue: Against the oppressive tinkathia system imposed by European indigo planters on peasants in Champaran, Bihar (forced cultivation of indigo on 3/20th of land).
  • Method: Detailed inquiry into peasant grievances, civil disobedience (refusal to obey eviction orders).
  • Outcome: Government appointed an inquiry committee (Gandhi was a member); tinkathia system abolished; partial refund to peasants. First major success of Civil Disobedience in India. Leaders like Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kripalani joined Gandhi.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918):
  • Issue: Dispute between textile mill workers and owners over a 'plague bonus'. Owners wanted to withdraw it, while workers demanded a 50% wage hike due to wartime inflation.
  • Method: Gandhi advised workers to strike non-violently; undertook a 'fast unto death' to strengthen the workers' resolve and pressure owners.
  • Outcome: Owners agreed to arbitration; workers got a 35% wage increase. First use of a hunger strike as a political weapon by Gandhi in India. Anasuya Behn Sarabhai supported the workers.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
  • Issue: Crop failure in Kheda district, Gujarat. Peasants were unable to pay land revenue and demanded remission as per the revenue code.
  • Method: Gandhi advised peasants to withhold revenue payment (No-Tax campaign).
  • Outcome: Government eventually issued secret instructions to collect revenue only from those who could afford to pay. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel emerged as a key leader during this campaign.

3. The Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)

• Context: Post-World War I, Indians expected concessions, but the British imposed the repressive Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act (Rowlatt Act).
• Rowlatt Act: Allowed detention without trial, suspension of habeas corpus. Seen as a betrayal by Indians ("No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal").
• Gandhi's Response: Called for a nationwide hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919 – the first all-India agitation. It involved hartals, fasting, prayer, and civil disobedience against specific laws.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
  • A large, peaceful crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, to protest the arrest of leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, and to celebrate Baisakhi.
  • General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on the unarmed crowd without warning, blocking the only exit. Hundreds were killed, thousands injured.
  • Impact: Shocked the nation, Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Gandhi, horrified by the violence (both by the British and some Indian protestors), called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha. It highlighted the brutality of British rule and pushed many, including Gandhi, towards stronger forms of protest.

4. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

• Background: Jallianwala Bagh massacre, discontent over the Hunter Committee report (seen as a whitewash), economic hardship post-WWI, and the Khilafat issue.
• Khilafat Issue:
  • The Sultan of Turkey, regarded as the Caliph (Khalifa) or spiritual head of the Islamic world, faced deposition and dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire after WWI.
  • Indian Muslims launched the Khilafat Movement (led by Ali Brothers - Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali, Maulana Azad, Hasrat Mohani) to pressure the British to protect the Caliph's position.
  • Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims against British rule. He became a prominent leader of the Khilafat Committee.
• Launch & Programme: Congress session in Nagpur (December 1920) ratified the Non-Cooperation resolution. The programme included:
  • Boycott of government schools, colleges, courts, legislatures, foreign goods (especially cloth).
  • Surrender of titles and honours.
  • Promotion of Swadeshi goods, Khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability.
  • Establishment of national schools and colleges (like Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith, Jamia Millia Islamia).
  • Setting up local panchayats for resolving disputes.
• Spread & Participation: Massive participation from students, middle class, peasants, workers, women. Significant Hindu-Muslim unity. Boycott of foreign cloth was particularly successful.
• Withdrawal (February 1922):
  • Chauri Chaura Incident (Feb 5, 1922): A protesting mob clashed with police in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur district (UP). The mob set fire to the police station, killing 22 policemen.
  • Gandhi, deeply committed to non-violence (Ahimsa), was shocked and immediately withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement, despite criticism from leaders like Nehru and Bose. He felt the people were not yet ready for non-violent mass struggle.
• Significance: First true mass movement; shook the foundations of British rule; established Gandhi as the undisputed leader of the national movement; politicized vast sections of the population; demonstrated the power of non-violent mass action.

5. The Interlude (1922-1929)

• Gandhi's Imprisonment: Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to 6 years (released in 1924 on health grounds).
• Constructive Work: Gandhi focused on constructive programmes: promoting Khadi, spinning (Charkha), Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability (calling the oppressed castes 'Harijans' - children of God), village upliftment. He believed this would strengthen the nation from within.
• Swarajists vs. No-Changers: Within Congress, a split occurred.
  • Swarajists (C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru): Advocated 'Council Entry' to obstruct government work from within the legislatures.
  • No-Changers (Rajagopalachari, Patel, Rajendra Prasad): Advocated sticking to Gandhi's constructive programme and boycotting councils.
  • A compromise allowed Swarajists to contest elections.
• Simon Commission (1927-28): An all-white commission appointed by the British government to review the working of the Government of India Act 1919 and suggest further reforms. Boycotted universally by Indians ("Simon Go Back") as it had no Indian members. Led to widespread protests, during which Lala Lajpat Rai was fatally injured in a police lathi-charge in Lahore.

6. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

• Background: Failure of Simon Commission, rejection of Nehru Report (demanding Dominion Status) by the British, Lahore Congress Session (December 1929).
• Lahore Congress (1929): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. Declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as the goal. Decided to launch Civil Disobedience. January 26, 1930, was fixed as the first Independence Day (to be celebrated annually).
• Gandhi's Ultimatum: Gandhi presented 11 demands to Viceroy Lord Irwin (including abolition of the salt tax, reduction of land revenue, release of political prisoners). Irwin's rejection paved the way for the movement.
• Salt Satyagraha & Dandi March (March 12 - April 6, 1930):
  • Gandhi chose to defy the unpopular Salt Law (which gave the state a monopoly on salt manufacture and sale, taxing a basic necessity).
  • He marched with 78 followers from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi (approx. 240 miles).
  • On April 6, he symbolically broke the salt law by picking up natural salt.
  • Significance: Brilliant strategic move – salt affected everyone; symbolized colonial exploitation. Captured world attention through extensive media coverage. Inspired nationwide defiance of the salt law and other forms of civil disobedience.
• Spread & Methods: Widespread salt law defiance, boycott of foreign cloth and liquor, non-payment of taxes (land revenue, chaukidari tax), forest law violations (especially in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, Karnataka), student and women participation was massive. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) led the movement in the North-West Frontier Province (Khudai Khidmatgars or Red Shirts).
• British Repression: Severe repression, mass arrests (including Gandhi, Nehru), lathi charges, firing.
• Round Table Conferences (RTCs): Held in London to discuss constitutional reforms.
  • First RTC (Nov 1930 - Jan 1931): Boycotted by Congress. Attended by Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals, Princes, representatives of Depressed Classes (Dr. B.R. Ambedkar). No outcome due to Congress absence.
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): To facilitate Congress participation in the Second RTC. Government agreed to release political prisoners (not involved in violence) and permit peaceful picketing and salt making for personal use. Congress agreed to suspend Civil Disobedience and attend the Second RTC. (Note: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru were executed shortly after, leading to criticism of Gandhi for not securing their release).
  • Second RTC (Sep - Dec 1931): Gandhi attended as the sole Congress representative. Talks deadlocked over minority representation (separate electorates demanded by Ambedkar for Depressed Classes, supported by British). Gandhi returned disappointed.
  • Resumption of Civil Disobedience (Jan 1932): On return, Gandhi found Irwin's successor, Willingdon, pursuing repressive policies. Movement was resumed but lacked the earlier fervour.
  • Communal Award & Poona Pact (1932): British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, granting separate electorates to Depressed Classes. Gandhi, opposing this as divisive, undertook a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. Led to the Poona Pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar – reserved seats for Depressed Classes within the general Hindu electorate, abandoning separate electorates.
  • Third RTC (Nov - Dec 1932): Boycotted by Congress. Little achieved.
• Withdrawal: Movement gradually faded; formally withdrawn in May 1934. Gandhi focused again on constructive work, especially Harijan upliftment (undertook Harijan tour, published the weekly Harijan).

7. Developments Leading to Quit India (1935-1942)

• Government of India Act, 1935: Provided for provincial autonomy and a federal structure (which never materialized). Elections held in 1937.
• Congress Ministries (1937-1939): Congress formed ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces. Undertook some reforms but faced limitations. Resigned en masse in October 1939 in protest against India being dragged into World War II without consultation.
• World War II (1939): Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war without consulting Indian leaders. Congress demanded clarity on war aims and independence.
• August Offer (1940): Viceroy offered Dominion Status after the war, expansion of Viceroy's Executive Council. Rejected by Congress as inadequate.
• Individual Satyagraha (1940-41): Limited Satyagraha launched by Gandhi to assert the right to free speech against the war effort. Vinoba Bhave was the first satyagrahi, followed by Nehru.
• Cripps Mission (March 1942):
  • Context: Worsening war situation for Allies (Japan advancing towards India). Pressure from USA and China on Britain.
  • Proposals: Sir Stafford Cripps offered Dominion Status after the war, constitution-making body after the war, provinces free to join or not (implicit acceptance of partition), immediate transfer of defence portfolio remained with British.
  • Rejection: Rejected by Congress (wanted immediate transfer of power, objected to provincial secession clause). Rejected by Muslim League (wanted explicit commitment to Pakistan). Gandhi called it a "post-dated cheque on a crashing bank".

8. Quit India Movement (August 1942)

• Context: Failure of Cripps Mission, growing threat of Japanese invasion, rising prices and shortages, popular discontent.
• Launch: All India Congress Committee met in Bombay (Gwalior Tank Maidan) on August 8, 1942. Passed the 'Quit India' resolution demanding immediate end to British rule. Gandhi gave the call: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro).
• Nature: Spontaneous mass uprising after the arrest of Gandhi and entire Congress leadership on August 9. Leaderless movement. Characterized by attacks on symbols of British authority (police stations, post offices, railway lines), formation of parallel governments (e.g., Satara in Maharashtra, Ballia in UP, Tamluk in Bengal). Underground activities coordinated by leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta (ran underground radio). Massive participation, especially by youth and peasants.
• British Repression: Most severe repression; mass arrests (over 60,000), firing, air bombing in some areas. Took over a year to crush the movement.
• Significance: Demonstrated the depth of nationalist feeling and the incapacity of the British to rule India long-term without popular consent. Made independence inevitable.

9. Towards Independence and Partition (1945-1947)

• End of WWII (1945): Labour Party (more sympathetic to Indian demands) came to power in Britain under Clement Attlee.
• Wavell Plan & Simla Conference (1945): Proposed reconstitution of Viceroy's Executive Council with balanced Hindu-Muslim representation. Conference failed due to Jinnah's insistence that only the Muslim League could nominate Muslim members.
• INA Trials (1945-46): Trials of captured Indian National Army (formed by Subhas Chandra Bose) soldiers at Red Fort sparked massive public sympathy and protests.
• RIN Mutiny (Feb 1946): Ratings of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay mutinied against racial discrimination and poor conditions. Spread to other naval centres. Showed erosion of British authority even within the armed forces.
• Cabinet Mission (March 1946): Sent by Attlee government (members: Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander) to negotiate transfer of power.
  • Proposals: Rejected demand for Pakistan. Proposed a three-tiered federal structure: Provinces, Provincial Groupings (A, B, C), and a Centre (controlling Defence, Foreign Affairs, Communications). Constituent Assembly to be formed. Interim government.
  • Outcome: Initially accepted by both Congress and League, but differences arose over interpretation (especially grouping clause and powers of the interim government). League withdrew acceptance.
• Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946): Called by Muslim League to press for Pakistan. Led to horrific communal riots in Calcutta ('Great Calcutta Killings'), spreading to Noakhali (Bengal), Bihar, UP, Punjab.
• Interim Government (Sept 1946): Formed under Nehru. League initially boycotted but joined later (October 1946), obstructing its functioning.
• Constituent Assembly: Met for the first time on Dec 9, 1946 (boycotted by League).
• Attlee's Declaration (Feb 20, 1947): British would quit India by June 1948, transferring power to responsible Indian hands. Lord Mountbatten appointed Viceroy to oversee the transfer.
• Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Partition of India accepted as inevitable due to escalating violence. India and Pakistan to be created as two independent dominions. Princely states free to join either dominion or remain independent (later persuaded to join). Punjab and Bengal assemblies would vote on partition; referendum in NWFP and Sylhet. Plan accepted by Congress and League.
• Indian Independence Act (July 1947): Passed by British Parliament, implementing the Mountbatten Plan. India became independent on August 15, 1947.

10. Gandhi's Last Heroic Days

• Opposed Partition: Gandhi was deeply distressed by Partition and the accompanying violence. He did not participate in the independence celebrations in Delhi.
• Peace Mission: Toured riot-affected areas like Noakhali and Bihar, walking barefoot, trying to restore communal harmony. His presence often had a calming effect.
• Fast in Calcutta (Sept 1947): Undertook a fast to stop riots in Calcutta, which had a miraculous effect. Mountbatten called him a "one-man boundary force".
• Fast in Delhi (Jan 1948): Undertook his last fast to pressure the Indian government to release Pakistan's share of assets (Rs. 55 crores) and to ensure Muslim safety in Delhi.
• Assassination (Jan 30, 1948): Assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist who held Gandhi responsible for Partition and appeasing Muslims. His death sent shockwaves across the world.

11. Knowing Gandhi: Sources

• Writings and Speeches: Gandhi's autobiography (My Experiments with Truth), his articles in journals like Harijan, Young India, Indian Opinion, his letters, and recorded speeches are primary sources. They reveal his thoughts, strategies, and evolution.
• Contemporary Accounts: Accounts by associates (Nehru, Patel), followers, political adversaries, journalists (like Louis Fischer), and foreign visitors provide different perspectives.
• Government Records: Official reports, police diaries, fortnightly reports sent by provincial administrators to the centre, CID reports. These offer the official perspective, often viewing Gandhi and the movement with suspicion but also revealing the extent of popular participation and the government's anxieties. (Example: Fortnightly reports mentioned in the chapter).
• Newspapers: Indian and foreign newspapers tracked Gandhi's activities and the movements extensively, shaping public opinion and providing valuable chronological details. Both English and vernacular press played key roles.

Key Concepts/Terms:

• Satyagraha: Truth force; passive resistance; non-violent civil disobedience.
• Ahimsa: Non-violence in thought, word, and deed.
• Swadeshi: Promotion of indigenous goods and self-reliance.
• Boycott: Refusal to use or buy foreign goods, attend government institutions, etc.
• Hartal: Strike; suspension of work and business.
• Harijan: "Children of God"; term used by Gandhi for the Depressed Classes/Untouchables.
• Purna Swaraj: Complete Independence.
• Khadi: Hand-spun and hand-woven cloth, symbol of self-reliance.
• Charkha: Spinning wheel, symbol of Swadeshi and dignity of labour.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. In which session did the Indian National Congress declare Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal?
   a) Nagpur Session, 1920
   b) Gaya Session, 1922
   c) Lahore Session, 1929
   d) Karachi Session, 1931

2. The Dandi March, led by Mahatma Gandhi, was primarily associated with the defiance of:
   a) Forest Laws
   b) Land Revenue demands
   c) The Salt Law
   d) Press restrictions

3. Who among the following was NOT a member of the Cabinet Mission sent to India in 1946?
   a) Sir Stafford Cripps
   b) Lord Wavell
   c) Lord Pethick-Lawrence
   d) A.V. Alexander

4. The Chauri Chaura incident, which led Mahatma Gandhi to suspend the Non-Cooperation Movement, occurred in which present-day state of India?
   a) Bihar
   b) Uttar Pradesh
   c) Gujarat
   d) Bengal

5. The Poona Pact (1932) was signed between Mahatma Gandhi and:
   a) Muhammad Ali Jinnah
   b) Lord Irwin
   c) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
   d) Jawaharlal Nehru

6. Mahatma Gandhi's first major public appearance in India was at the opening of:
   a) Aligarh Muslim University
   b) Banaras Hindu University
   c) Calcutta University
   d) Shantiniketan

7. The 'Do or Die' (Karo ya Maro) call was given by Mahatma Gandhi during which movement?
   a) Non-Cooperation Movement
   b) Civil Disobedience Movement
   c) Quit India Movement
   d) Rowlatt Satyagraha

8. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as the 'Frontier Gandhi', led the Civil Disobedience Movement in which region?
   a) Punjab
   b) Sindh
   c) North-West Frontier Province
   d) Baluchistan

9. Which of the following was NOT one of the reasons for launching the Non-Cooperation Movement?
   a) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
   b) The Khilafat Issue
   c) Discontent over the Rowlatt Act
   d) Failure of the Cripps Mission

10. The weekly paper started by Mahatma Gandhi, particularly focused on social reforms and upliftment of the oppressed classes, was named:
    a) Young India
    b) Indian Opinion
    c) Harijan
    d) Navajivan

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. (c) Lahore Session, 1929
2. (c) The Salt Law
3. (b) Lord Wavell (He was the Viceroy at the time, not part of the Mission)
4. (b) Uttar Pradesh
5. (c) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
6. (b) Banaras Hindu University
7. (c) Quit India Movement
8. (c) North-West Frontier Province
9. (d) Failure of the Cripps Mission (This happened much later in 1942, leading to Quit India)
10. (c) Harijan

I hope these detailed notes and MCQs help you prepare effectively for your exams. Remember to cross-reference with the textbook and focus on understanding the sequence of events and their significance. Let me know if you have any specific questions!