Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 (Chapter 5) – Themes in Indian History-II Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 5, 'Through the Eyes of Travellers'. This chapter is crucial because it offers us perspectives on Indian society between the tenth and seventeenth centuries, not from internal sources, but from those who came from vastly different cultural backgrounds. These accounts are invaluable historical sources, but we must also learn to read them critically, understanding the travellers' own contexts and biases. For your exam preparation, pay close attention to the key figures, their observations, and the comparisons they draw.

Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth century)

I. Introduction: Why Study Travellers' Accounts?

• Unique Perspectives: Travellers often notice everyday practices and social norms that residents take for granted. Their accounts provide insights into social, cultural, and economic life.
• Diverse Backgrounds: The travellers discussed came from different parts of the world (Central Asia, North Africa, Europe) and had varied motivations (religious quest, adventure, employment, intellectual curiosity).
• Source Material: Their writings (like Al-Biruni's Kitab-ul-Hind, Ibn Battuta's Rihla, Bernier's Travels in the Mogul Empire) are rich sources, detailing everything from state policies to local customs.
• Critical Evaluation: It's essential to remember that these accounts reflect the authors' viewpoints, interests, biases, and the specific regions/social groups they encountered. They are not always objective or comprehensive representations of the entire subcontinent.

II. Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind (c. 11th Century)

• Background:
  • Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni was born in Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan) in 973 CE.
  • A scholar proficient in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit.
  • Arrived in Ghazni as a hostage with Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni after Mahmud's conquest of Khwarizm (1017 CE).
  • Developed an interest in India, spending years in the Punjab region associated with the Ghaznavid empire.
• Methodology:
  • Learned Sanskrit to access Indian texts directly.
  • Consulted Brahmanas and studied religious/philosophical texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali).
  • Adopted a comparative approach, comparing Indian thought and society with Greek philosophy and other cultures.
  • Noted for his critical approach and mathematical precision.
• Kitab-ul-Hind (Also known as Tahqiq-i-Hind):
  • Written in Arabic.
  • A voluminous text, known for its geometric structure – 80 chapters covering diverse topics.
  • Content: Religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws, metrology.
  • Structure: Each chapter often begins with a question, followed by a description based on Sanskrit traditions, and concludes with a comparison with other cultures.
• Observations on Indian Society:
  • The Caste System:
    • Described the four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) based on Brahmanical texts.
    • Noted the existence of antyaja (literally "born outside the system") – groups performing polluting tasks, often segregated.
    • Explained the concept of pollution and social hierarchy.
    • Attempted to understand it by comparing it with social divisions in ancient Persia (knights/princes, monks/priests, physicians/astronomers, peasants/artisans), but noted the Indian system was more rigid.
    • Disapproved of the notion of pollution inherent in the caste system.
  • Barriers to Understanding: Al-Biruni identified three main barriers hindering mutual understanding:
    1. Language: Sanskrit was vastly different from Arabic and Persian.
    2. Religion: Differences in religious beliefs and practices.
    3. Insularity: The self-absorbed attitude and perceived arrogance of the local population (especially the learned Brahmanas he interacted with).
• Significance: Al-Biruni's work remains a crucial source for understanding 11th-century India, particularly its religious and philosophical traditions and social structure, despite his limited geographical exposure (mainly Punjab).

III. Ibn Battuta and the Rihla (c. 14th Century)

• Background:
  • Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier, Morocco, into a learned family known for expertise in Islamic law (shari‘a).
  • Embarked on his travels (rihla) in 1332-33 CE, initially intending to perform Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).
  • His travels spanned vast regions: North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, China, Southeast Asia, and possibly parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Travelled extensively for nearly 30 years.
• Journey to India:
  • Reached Sind in 1333 CE, attracted by the reputation of the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
  • Presented himself to the Sultan, who appointed him the qazi (judge) of Delhi.
  • Served in this position for several years but later fell out of favour and was imprisoned.
  • Restored to favour and appointed as the Sultan's envoy to the Mongol ruler of China in 1342. His journey to China was fraught with adventure and mishap (shipwreck near Malabar).
• Rihla (Journey/Travelogue):
  • Written in Arabic upon his return to Morocco.
  • A rich narrative account of his experiences, focusing on the unfamiliar and novel aspects of the lands he visited.
  • Provides vivid descriptions of cultures, people, beliefs, values, cities, trade, and administration.
• Observations on Indian Society:
  • Cities:
    • Described Indian cities as densely populated, prosperous, with bustling markets that were hubs of social and economic activity.
    • Delhi: Described it as vast, magnificent, with a large population, impressive fortifications, mosques, and bazaars. Noted its multi-gated structure.
    • Daulatabad (in Maharashtra): Also described its size and significance, rivaling Delhi.
    • Markets were not just places of trade but also social and cultural centres with mosques and temples.
  • Trade and Commerce:
    • India was well-integrated into inter-continental networks of trade extending from East Africa and the Middle East to Southeast Asia and China.
    • High demand for Indian textiles (cotton, silk, muslin), spices, etc.
  • Communication System:
    • Impressed by the efficiency of the postal system, crucial for rulers to get information and dispatch orders.
    • Described two types:
      • Uluq (horse post): Run by royal horses stationed at intervals of four miles.
      • Dawa (foot post): Had three stations per mile; runners carried mail quickly using bells attached to rods. Faster than the horse post. Used to transport fruits, Ganges water for the Sultan, and intelligence.
  • Social Life & Customs:
    • Described unique flora like the coconut ("resembles a man's head") and paan (betel leaf), detailing their uses and social significance.
    • Noted the practice of sati (self-immolation of widows on their husband's pyre).
    • Slavery: Slavery was prevalent. Slaves were openly sold, used for domestic labour, carrying palanquins, and even as skilled artisans or soldiers. Ibn Battuta himself purchased slaves as gifts. Female slaves were employed in households and by the Sultan for entertainment and espionage.
  • Beliefs: Described both Hindu and Muslim practices, holy men, shrines, etc.
• Significance: Ibn Battuta's Rihla provides a valuable "outsider's" perspective on 14th-century India under the Tughlaqs, particularly strong on urban life, trade networks, and the communication system. His adventurous spirit makes his account engaging, though sometimes prone to exaggeration or hearsay.

IV. Francois Bernier and a Comparative Perspective (c. 17th Century)

• Background:
  • Born in France (1620 CE). A doctor, political philosopher, and historian.
  • Came to Mughal India between 1656 and 1668, seeking opportunities.
  • Associated with the Mughal court, initially as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh (eldest son of Shah Jahan), and later worked with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble and intellectual at the court of Aurangzeb.
• Travels in the Mogul Empire:
  • His work was structured differently from earlier travellers, focusing on comparing Mughal India with contemporary Europe (especially France).
  • Dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the King of France, and his influential minister Colbert.
  • His accounts became extremely popular and influential in Europe.
• Observations and Comparisons (Often Critical):
  • Land Ownership:
    • Central Argument: Bernier argued that a key difference between Mughal India and Europe was the absence of private property in land in India. He believed the king owned all land and distributed it among his nobles, leading to disastrous consequences.
    • Consequences (according to Bernier):
      • Nobles had no long-term incentive to invest in or improve the land, leading to its ruin.
      • Oppression of peasants by lords eager to extract maximum revenue quickly.
      • Decline in agriculture and living standards.
      • Stagnation of society.
    • Critique: While the Mughal state did have significant claims over land revenue, historical evidence (Mughal documents like Ain-i-Akbari) suggests the existence of various forms of private land ownership and hereditary rights among peasants and zamindars. Bernier's view was an oversimplification, possibly influenced by his desire to advocate for the French model.
  • Social Structure:
    • Described Indian society as composed of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small minority of wealthy and powerful ruling elite.
    • Claimed there was a lack of a "middle sort" of people (the middle class) which he saw as crucial for societal progress in Europe. This again is debatable, as trade and artisanal production supported merchant groups and master craftsmen who could be considered part of a middle stratum.
  • Mughal Cities:
    • Described them as "camp towns" – large and populous but dependent entirely on the imperial court and army. He believed they grew when the court arrived and declined rapidly when it moved elsewhere.
    • Contrasted them unfavourably with the stable, economically independent cities of Europe.
  • Artisans: Acknowledged the skill of Indian artisans but lamented their poor condition, arguing they lacked incentive due to state appropriation and coercion by nobles.
  • Sati: Provided detailed, often graphic and horrific, accounts of sati, emphasizing the social pressure and coercion involved, though acknowledging some women embraced it willingly. His accounts were deeply critical.
• Influence and Legacy:
  • Bernier's accounts were widely read and translated, shaping European thinking about the 'Orient'.
  • His ideas about crown ownership of land and resulting stagnation heavily influenced the theory of "Oriental Despotism" – the idea that Asian rulers exercised absolute, arbitrary power over their subjects and property, leading to poverty and backwardness.
  • Philosophers like Montesquieu used his accounts to develop theories of government.
  • Karl Marx later used the idea of the absence of private property in land to develop his concept of the "Asiatic mode of production," arguing that the state's control over irrigation and land prevented the emergence of class conflict and social revolution as seen in Europe.

V. Women, Slavery, and Sati – Specific Observations

• Travellers often commented on the condition of women, though their observations were shaped by their own patriarchal backgrounds.
• Labour: Women were involved in agricultural and artisanal production, worked in markets (Ibn Battuta).
• Slavery: As noted by Ibn Battuta, slavery was common, with slaves used for various tasks. Prices of slaves, especially female slaves for domestic work, were often low.
• Sati: Both Ibn Battuta and Bernier described sati. Ibn Battuta noted it required the Sultan's permission. Bernier's accounts were particularly detailed and focused on the pathos and cruelty, highlighting community pressure and the role of Brahmanas.

VI. Conclusion

• The accounts of Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Bernier provide rich, though varied and sometimes biased, windows into Indian society between the 11th and 17th centuries.
• They highlight aspects like the caste system, urban life, trade networks, communication systems, land relations, and social customs like sati and slavery.
• It is crucial for students preparing for exams to understand not just what these travellers observed, but also who they were, why they were writing, and how their perspectives might have shaped their accounts.
• Their writings had a significant impact on how India was perceived, especially in the West, influencing major intellectual and political theories. Always read these sources critically.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

1. Al-Biruni, the author of Kitab-ul-Hind, primarily gained his knowledge of Indian religious and philosophical texts by:
   a) Reading translations provided by Muslim scholars.
   b) Learning Sanskrit and consulting with Brahmana scholars.
   c) Observing popular religious festivals and rituals only.
   d) Relying solely on accounts from previous Greek travellers.

2. Which traveller identified language, religious differences, and local insularity as major barriers to understanding India in the 11th century?
   a) Ibn Battuta
   b) Francois Bernier
   c) Al-Biruni
   d) Marco Polo

3. Ibn Battuta described the Indian communication system in detail. What were the uluq and dawa respectively?
   a) Foot post and horse post
   b) A type of tax and a judicial decree
   c) Horse post and foot post
   d) A market official and a city gate

4. Which 14th-century traveller was appointed as the qazi of Delhi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq?
   a) Al-Biruni
   b) Ibn Battuta
   c) Francois Bernier
   d) Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi

5. Francois Bernier, in his Travels in the Mogul Empire, strongly argued that the major difference between Mughal India and Europe lay in:
   a) The types of crops grown.
   b) The prevalence of the caste system.
   c) The absence of private property in land in India.
   d) The architectural style of mosques and temples.

6. Bernier's description of Mughal cities as "camp towns" primarily emphasized their:
   a) Strong fortifications and military presence.
   b) Dependence on the imperial court for survival and prosperity.
   c) Role as major centres of international trade.
   d) Excellent sanitation and public infrastructure.

7. The theory of "Oriental Despotism," which became influential in Europe, was significantly shaped by the writings of:
   a) Al-Biruni
   b) Ibn Battuta
   c) Marco Polo
   d) Francois Bernier

8. Which traveller provided vivid descriptions of coconuts and paan (betel leaf), noting their social significance in 14th-century India?
   a) Francois Bernier
   b) Al-Biruni
   c) Ibn Battuta
   d) Niccolo Manucci

9. Al-Biruni, while describing the caste system, compared India's four social divisions (varnas) with similar divisions in:
   a) Ancient Greece
   b) Ancient Egypt
   c) Ancient Persia
   d) The Roman Empire

10. Karl Marx's concept of the "Asiatic mode of production" drew upon which idea prominently discussed by Bernier?
    a) The efficiency of the Indian postal system.
    b) The state (or Crown) ownership of land.
    c) The prevalence of sati.
    d) The skill of Indian artisans despite their poverty.

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. b
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. d
8. c
9. c
10. b

Study these notes carefully, focusing on the details and comparisons made by each traveller. Understanding their perspectives and the context of their writings is key. Good luck with your preparation!