Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 (Chapter 5) – Themes in Indian History-III Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 5, "Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth century)". This chapter is crucial because it gives us perspectives on medieval Indian society from outsiders, highlighting aspects that residents might have taken for granted. For government exams, understanding the key travellers, their observations, biases, and the context of their writings is essential.

Here are detailed notes covering the core aspects:

Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth century)

I. Introduction: Why Travellers?

• Accounts of foreign travellers provide valuable alternative perspectives on Indian society during the medieval period (roughly 10th to 17th centuries).
• They noticed and recorded everyday practices, social norms, political structures, and economic activities that contemporary Indian writers might have overlooked as commonplace.
• However, their accounts must be read critically, considering their backgrounds, biases, intended audience, and reasons for travel (pilgrimage, adventure, employment, escaping hardship, seeking knowledge).

II. Key Travellers and Their Accounts:

This chapter primarily focuses on three significant travellers:

A. Al-Biruni (from Khwarizm, Uzbekistan - 11th Century)

1. Context:
   • Arrived in Punjab as a hostage with Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion.
   • Learned Sanskrit and studied Indian religious and philosophical texts extensively.
   • A scholar well-versed in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit.
2. Major Work: Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tahqiq-i-Hind - "Enquiry into India")
   • Written in Arabic.
   • Comprehensive text covering Indian religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws, and metrology.
   • Known for its mathematical structure (each chapter begins with a question, followed by description based on Sanskrit traditions, and often a comparison with other cultures).
3. Methodology & Challenges:
   • Relied heavily on Brahmanical texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali).
   • Faced significant barriers:
     • Language: Sanskrit was complex and vastly different from Arabic/Persian.
     • Religious Beliefs & Practices: Differences were stark.
     • Insularity: Perceived self-absorption and suspicion of outsiders among the local population (especially Brahmans).
4. Observations on Indian Society:
   • Caste System:
     • Attempted to understand the Varna system (Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras).
     • Noted its rigidity and the concept of social pollution/purity associated with it.
     • Compared it to social divisions in ancient Persia but found the Indian system more rigid.
     • Described the antyaja (literally "born outside the system") – groups considered outside the Varna hierarchy, often performing polluting tasks.
     • Disapproved of the notion of pollution, arguing it was contrary to the laws of nature.

B. Ibn Battuta (from Morocco - 14th Century)

1. Context:
   • One of the greatest travellers of the pre-modern era, journeying extensively across North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent, and China.
   • Arrived in India (Sind) in 1333 during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
   • Appointed as the qazi (judge) of Delhi by the Sultan.
   • Fell out of favour, imprisoned, later restored and sent as an envoy to China.
2. Major Work: Rihla ("Journey")
   • Written in Arabic.
   • Provides rich details about his travels, experiences, and observations.
   • Focuses more on lived experiences and novelties rather than textual analysis like Al-Biruni.
3. Observations on Indian Society:
   • Cities: Described Indian cities as densely populated, prosperous, with bustling markets and vibrant cultural life. Particularly detailed account of Delhi (calling it vast and magnificent) and Daulatabad.
   • Trade and Commerce: Noted extensive trade networks connecting India with Central Asia and Southeast Asia. Markets were hubs of social and economic activity.
   • Agriculture: Mentioned the fertility of the soil, allowing multiple crops a year.
   • Communication System: Impressed by the efficiency of the postal system:
     • Uluq: Horse post, stationed every four miles.
     • Dawa: Foot post, stationed every mile, with runners carrying mail in relays. Faster than the horse post. Used not just for mail but also for transporting goods (like fruits) and intelligence.
   • Unfamiliar Things: Described coconut ("nut resembling a man's head") and paan (betel leaf) with great curiosity.
   • Slavery: Slaves were openly sold in markets, used for domestic labour, carrying palanquins, and even as soldiers. Ibn Battuta himself purchased slaves. Sultan gifted slaves regularly.
   • Social Customs: Observed practices like Sati (widow immolation), though he noted permissions were required. Described the social life, music, and entertainment.

C. François Bernier (from France - 17th Century)

1. Context:
   • A French doctor, political philosopher, and historian.
   • Came to Mughal India (1656-1668) during a period of political turmoil (war of succession among Shah Jahan's sons).
   • Stayed for 12 years, closely associated with the Mughal court, serving as physician to Prince Dara Shukoh and later attached to an Armenian noble at Aurangzeb's court.
2. Major Work: Travels in the Mogul Empire
   • Written primarily as comparisons between Mughal India and contemporary Europe (especially France).
   • Often presented India as inferior or fundamentally flawed compared to Europe.
   • His work became extremely influential in shaping Western ideas about India and the "Orient".
3. Key Arguments & Observations:
   • Lack of Private Property in Land:
     • Argued that the Mughal Emperor owned all land, leading to disastrous consequences:
       • No incentive for landholders to invest in improving agriculture.
       • Oppression of peasantry by state officials.
       • Decline in agricultural production and living standards.
       • (Note: Historians now largely contest this simplistic view, pointing to evidence of various forms of land rights).
   • "Oriental Despotism": His idea of crown ownership of land was central to the concept of "Oriental Despotism," where Asian rulers were seen as absolute tyrants presiding over impoverished subjects.
   • Rural Society: Described impoverished peasantry, exploited by a ruling elite.
   • Cities: Viewed Mughal cities as "camp towns," dependent on the imperial court, declining rapidly when the court moved away. Contrasted them negatively with the stable, productive cities of Europe.
   • Artisans: Noted the skill of Indian artisans but believed they were exploited by nobles and lacked incentives due to state control.
   • Social Conditions: Provided vivid, often horrific, accounts of Sati. Also wrote about the rigidities of the caste system.
   • Scientific Development: Believed India lagged behind Europe in science and technology.

III. Cross-Cutting Themes:

• Women: Travellers often commented on the treatment of women, particularly Sati. Ibn Battuta described the ritual in detail. Bernier strongly condemned it. They also noted women's roles in agriculture, markets, and royal households.
• Urban Centres: While Ibn Battuta saw vibrant cities, Bernier had a more critical view, emphasizing their dependence on the court.
• Understanding Travellers' Accounts: It's vital to remember:
  • They wrote for specific audiences back home.
  • Their observations were shaped by their own cultural backgrounds and biases (e.g., Bernier's Eurocentrism).
  • They often focused on the exceptional or dramatic (like Sati).
  • Their understanding could be limited by language barriers or reliance on specific informants.

IV. Conclusion for Exam Preparation:

• Know the names of the three main travellers, their origins, centuries of visit, and their major works (Kitab-ul-Hind, Rihla, Travels in the Mogul Empire).
• Understand Al-Biruni's focus on texts and the caste system, and the barriers he faced.
• Know Ibn Battuta's observations on cities, trade, the postal system, slavery, and his experiential approach.
• Grasp Bernier's comparative framework (India vs. Europe), his influential arguments about land ownership ("Oriental Despotism"), cities, and Sati.
• Be aware of the limitations and potential biases in these accounts. They are windows, not perfect mirrors, into the past.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

1. Al-Biruni, the 11th-century traveller to India, primarily based his comprehensive work, Kitab-ul-Hind, on:
   (a) Interviews with merchants and traders.
   (b) Observations of courtly life under Mahmud of Ghazni.
   (c) Study of Sanskrit scriptures and Brahmanical texts.
   (d) Analysis of Buddhist monastic records.

2. Which traveller described the Indian postal system, distinguishing between the horse post (uluq) and the foot post (dawa)?
   (a) Al-Biruni
   (b) Ibn Battuta
   (c) François Bernier
   (d) Marco Polo

3. François Bernier's central argument about the problems facing Mughal India focused on:
   (a) The inefficiency of the communication system.
   (b) The prevalence of superstitious practices.
   (c) The lack of private property in land, leading to agricultural decline.
   (d) Excessive interference by the Ulema in state affairs.

4. The term antyaja, mentioned by Al-Biruni, referred to:
   (a) Foreign merchants residing in Indian ports.
   (b) People considered outside the traditional Varna system, often performing 'polluting' tasks.
   (c) A specific category of soldiers in the Ghaznavid army.
   (d) Royal officials responsible for tax collection.

5. Ibn Battuta's Rihla provides vivid descriptions of which aspects of 14th-century India?
   (a) The complex rules of Sanskrit grammar.
   (b) The philosophical debates between different schools of thought.
   (c) Bustling cities like Delhi, trade networks, and practices like slavery and Sati.
   (d) The architectural principles of South Indian temples.

6. Which traveller, arriving from Morocco, served as a qazi in Delhi under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq?
   (a) François Bernier
   (b) Al-Biruni
   (c) Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi
   (d) Ibn Battuta

7. Bernier's comparison between Mughal India and Europe often led him to conclude that:
   (a) India was scientifically more advanced but socially backward.
   (b) European society was superior due to private property and a different political structure.
   (c) Indian cities were more prosperous and stable than European ones.
   (d) The Mughal military was far more effective than European armies.

8. Al-Biruni identified several barriers to understanding India. Which of the following was a major barrier he mentioned?
   (a) The lack of written texts in India.
   (b) The complexity of the Sanskrit language and perceived Indian insularity.
   (c) Constant warfare preventing scholarly pursuits.
   (d) The prohibition on foreigners learning Indian sciences.

9. The concept of "Oriental Despotism," which became influential in Western thought, was strongly associated with the writings of:
   (a) Al-Biruni, based on his study of Hindu kingship.
   (b) Ibn Battuta, based on his experiences with Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
   (c) François Bernier, based on his theory of crown ownership of land.
   (d) Niccolao Manucci, based on his observations of Mughal court intrigue.

10. Which traveller showed particular curiosity about unfamiliar items like the coconut and paan (betel leaf) in his account?
    (a) Al-Biruni
    (b) Ibn Battuta
    (c) François Bernier
    (d) Duarte Barbosa

Answer Key:

1. (c)
2. (b)
3. (c)
4. (b)
5. (c)
6. (d)
7. (b)
8. (b)
9. (c)
10. (b)

Study these notes thoroughly. Understanding the perspectives and arguments of these three travellers is key to mastering this chapter for your exams. Good luck!