Class 12 History Notes Chapter 6 (Chapter 6) – Themes in Indian History-III Book

Themes in Indian History-III
Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 6 from your 'Themes in Indian History - Part III' textbook. This chapter, dealing with Bhakti-Sufi traditions, is crucial not just for your board exams but also forms a significant part of the syllabus for various government exams. We'll break down the key ideas, movements, and figures from roughly the 8th to the 18th century. Pay close attention to the terms and concepts.

Chapter 6: Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. 8th to 18th Century)

I. Introduction: A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs

  • This period witnessed the emergence and proliferation of diverse religious ideas and movements characterized by intense devotion (Bhakti) and mysticism (Sufism).
  • These traditions often challenged existing orthodoxies, social hierarchies (especially the caste system), and ritualistic complexities.
  • Sources: Understanding this period relies on:
    • Hagiographies: Biographies of saints, often emphasizing miracles and piety (though historical accuracy needs careful assessment). Examples: Texts on Sufi Shaikhs, biographies of Bhakti saints.
    • Devotional Literature: Compositions (poems, songs, verses) by Bhakti and Sufi saints in various regional languages (Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Hindi, Punjabi, etc.). Examples: Nalayira Divyaprabandham, Tevaram, Vachanas, Bijak, Adi Granth.
    • Architectural Sources: Temples, mosques, dargahs (Sufi shrines), khanqahs (Sufi hospices).

II. Early Bhakti Traditions in South India (c. 6th Century onwards)

  • Alvars: Devotees of Vishnu. Their main compilation of hymns is the Nalayira Divyaprabandham (often called the Tamil Veda). There were 12 Alvars, including one woman, Andal.
  • Nayanars: Devotees of Shiva. Their hymns were compiled into the Tevaram. There were 63 Nayanars, including figures from diverse social backgrounds (potters, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas) and women like Karaikkal Ammaiyar.
  • Key Features:
    • Emphasis on intense love and devotion to God as the path to salvation.
    • Use of local languages (Tamil) making devotion accessible.
    • Criticism of caste inequalities and Brahmanical dominance (though not always a complete rejection).
    • Travelled, sang hymns, attracted devotees.
    • Received royal patronage, especially from the Chola rulers (9th-13th centuries), who built magnificent temples (e.g., Chidambaram, Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram) and installed images of Nayanar saints.

III. The Virashaiva Movement in Karnataka (c. 12th Century)

  • Initiated by Basavanna, a minister in the court of a Kalachuri king.
  • Followers are known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga - a small stone linga worn on the body).
  • Key Beliefs & Practices:
    • Worship of Shiva in his manifestation as a linga.
    • Strongly challenged the caste system and questioned the theory of rebirth.
    • Rejected Brahmanical rituals like sacrifices and pilgrimages.
    • Advocated post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage.
    • Burial of the dead (unlike cremation common among Hindus).
    • Compositions known as Vachanas (sayings) in Kannada, contributed by both men and women (like Akkamahadevi).

IV. Emergence of Islamic Traditions

  • Arrival & Spread: Islam arrived with Arab traders (Malabar coast), Turkic invasions (from 11th century), and later through Sufi saints.
  • Rulers & Religion:
    • Rulers were generally guided by the ulama (Islamic scholars) and the Shari'a (Islamic law).
    • Non-Muslim subjects were termed Zimmis (protected people) and had to pay a tax called Jizya to practice their religion and receive state protection.
    • Granting of land endowments and tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian institutions sometimes occurred.
  • Popular Islam: Spread beyond elite circles through the efforts of merchants, migrants, artisans, and especially Sufis, often incorporating local customs and devotional practices.

V. Sufism: The Mystical Dimension of Islam

  • Meaning: Sufism or Tasawwuf represents the mystical, esoteric dimension of Islam, focusing on love, devotion, and seeking direct experience/union with God (Allah).
  • Key Ideas:
    • Emphasis on intense devotion, love for God, compassion towards all beings.
    • Criticism of dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur'an and Sunna (prophetic traditions).
    • Importance of a spiritual guide: Shaikh (Arabic), Pir or Murshid (Persian).
    • Disciples were called Murids.
    • Silsilas: Spiritual genealogies or orders tracing lineage back to Prophet Muhammad. Each followed a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and ritual practice.
  • Khanqah: Hospice or centre for Sufi activities, often headed by a Shaikh. It served as a place for teaching, spiritual sessions, community kitchen (langar), and shelter.
  • Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to the tombs of Sufi saints (Dargah). Believed that the saint's spiritual grace (barakat) continues after death.
  • Sama: Musical sessions, often using devotional music (qawwali) to evoke divine ecstasy. Opposed by some orthodox theologians.
  • Major Silsilas in India:
    • Chishti: Most influential. Established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Dargah at Ajmer). Known for austerity, service, distance from state power (though accepted grants), use of local languages, and Sama. Other prominent saints: Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid (Punjab), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i Delhi.
    • Suhrawardi: Entered India around the same time as Chishtis but largely confined to Punjab and Sind. Accepted state patronage and posts. Prominent saint: Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya.
    • Qadiri & Naqshbandi: Gained importance later, particularly during Mughal rule.

VI. New Strands in North India: Bhakti Movement

  • This period saw the rise of Bhakti saints who drew inspiration from earlier traditions (South Indian Bhakti, Sufism, Nathpanthis, Jogis) but developed distinct approaches.
  • Two Broad Categories:
    • Saguna Bhakti: Devotion to God with attributes/form (e.g., avatars like Rama, Krishna). Key figures: Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (Sursagar), Mirabai.
    • Nirguna Bhakti: Devotion to God without attributes/form – abstract, formless, ultimate reality. Key figures: Kabir, Guru Nanak.
  • Kabir (c. 14th-15th Century):
    • Background likely among weavers (julahas).
    • Strong proponent of Nirguna Bhakti.
    • Rejected major religious traditions (Hinduism & Islam), condemned idol worship, polytheism, caste system, rituals, priestly dominance.
    • Emphasized oneness of God (referred to by various names: Allah, Ram, Rahim, Khuda, Hari, Hazrat).
    • His verses (sakhis, shabads) compiled in the Bijak and also included in the Adi Granth Sahib. Followers form the Kabir Panth.
  • Guru Nanak (1469-1539) & Sikhism:
    • Born in Nankana Sahib (Punjab), travelled widely.
    • Preached Nirguna Bhakti – worship of one, formless God (Rab).
    • Rejected external practices like sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
    • Advocated devotion through singing hymns (Shabad) in Punjabi.
    • Emphasized ethical conduct, honesty, service, equality (rejected caste).
    • Organized followers into a community, established rules for congregational worship (sangat).
    • Appointed a successor, Guru Angad, establishing a lineage.
    • His hymns compiled by the fifth Guru, Guru Arjan, in the Adi Granth Sahib (along with hymns of Baba Farid, Kabir, Ravidas, etc.).
    • Later, the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, included compositions of the ninth Guru (Tegh Bahadur) and established the Khalsa Panth (community of the pure) in 1699, defining Sikh identity with the five Ks. The scripture became the Guru Granth Sahib.
  • Mirabai (c. 15th-16th Century):
    • Rajput princess from Merta, married into the Sisodia clan of Mewar.
    • Devotee of Krishna (Saguna Bhakti), considered him her lover.
    • Defied traditional roles of wife and mother, left the palace, lived as a wandering saint.
    • Composed intense devotional songs (bhajans) expressing love and longing for Krishna. Her songs often challenged caste and gender norms, gaining popularity among marginalized communities.

VII. Other Developments & Legacy

  • Shankaradeva (late 15th Century): Propagated Vaishnavism in Assam. Emphasized devotion to Vishnu/Krishna. Stressed naam kirtan (chanting God's name) and established satras (monasteries) and naamghars (prayer halls).
  • Impact:
    • Profound influence on regional languages and literature.
    • Contributed to the development of devotional music and art forms.
    • Challenged rigid social structures and orthodox religious practices.
    • Fostered a spirit of religious tolerance and composite culture in many areas.
    • Provided spiritual solace and alternative paths to devotion for common people, including women and lower castes.

This covers the essential points from Chapter 6. Remember to connect these movements, understand the key terms, and note the contributions of the major figures. This foundation will be very helpful for your exam preparation.


Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

  1. The compilation of hymns by the Alvars, devotees of Vishnu, is known as:
    a) Tevaram
    b) Nalayira Divyaprabandham
    c) Vachanas
    d) Bijak

  2. The Virashaiva movement, prominent in Karnataka, was initiated by:
    a) Ramanuja
    b) Shankaradeva
    c) Basavanna
    d) Kabir

  3. Which of the following terms refers to a hospice or centre for Sufi activities?
    a) Dargah
    b) Silsila
    c) Khanqah
    d) Ziyarat

  4. The Chishti Sufi order was established in India by:
    a) Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya
    b) Nizamuddin Auliya
    c) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
    d) Baba Farid

  5. Which Bhakti saint is known for advocating Nirguna Bhakti and strongly rejecting religious orthodoxies of both Hinduism and Islam?
    a) Mirabai
    b) Tulsidas
    c) Kabir
    d) Surdas

  6. The concept of 'Zimmis' in medieval India referred to:
    a) Muslim scholars who advised the rulers
    b) Protected non-Muslim subjects who paid Jizya
    c) Disciples of a Sufi Shaikh
    d) Rulers who followed Islamic law strictly

  7. Guru Nanak appointed whom as his successor, establishing the Guru lineage in Sikhism?
    a) Guru Arjan
    b) Guru Gobind Singh
    c) Guru Angad
    d) Guru Tegh Bahadur

  8. Mirabai, the Rajput princess saint, was an ardent devotee of which deity?
    a) Shiva
    b) Vishnu
    c) Krishna
    d) Devi (Goddess)

  9. The Nayanars were devotees associated with the worship of:
    a) Vishnu
    b) Shiva
    c) Brahma
    d) Goddess Durga

  10. Which practice, central to Chishti Sufism, involved musical sessions to evoke divine ecstasy?
    a) Ziyarat
    b) Langar
    c) Sama
    d) Tariqa


Answer Key:

  1. b) Nalayira Divyaprabandham
  2. c) Basavanna
  3. c) Khanqah
  4. c) Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
  5. c) Kabir
  6. b) Protected non-Muslim subjects who paid Jizya
  7. c) Guru Angad
  8. c) Krishna
  9. b) Shiva
  10. c) Sama

Go through these notes carefully, refer back to your textbook for more details, and practice these MCQs. Let me know if any part needs further clarification. Good luck with your preparation!

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