Class 12 Physology Notes Chapter 2 (Self and Personality) – Physocology Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 2: Self and Personality from your NCERT Psychology textbook. This chapter is fundamental, not just for understanding psychology but also because concepts related to self-awareness, personality types, and assessment frequently appear in various government examinations, especially in sections dealing with general awareness, ethics (sometimes indirectly), or specific psychology-related papers.

We need to understand how we define ourselves (the 'Self') and what constitutes the unique, relatively stable patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that make up our 'Personality'.

Chapter 2: Self and Personality - Detailed Notes for Exam Preparation

I. Introduction: Understanding Self

1. Concept of Self:

   • Refers to the totality of an individual's conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings concerning themselves.
   • It's how we perceive ourselves and how we believe others perceive us.
   • Develops over time through interactions with others (parents, peers, teachers) and experiences.

2. Personal Identity vs. Social Identity:

   • Personal Identity: Attributes that make you unique from others (e.g., your name, specific abilities, beliefs, values). "I am hardworking," "I am honest."
   • Social Identity: Aspects of self linked to group membership (e.g., religion, nationality, occupation). "I am an Indian," "I am a student," "I am a Hindu."

3. Self as Subject and Object:

   • Subject ('I'): The self that actively knows, experiences, and acts. The 'doer'. (e.g., "I am studying").
   • Object ('Me'): The self that is known or perceived, described, and evaluated. The self that is observed. (e.g., "He knows me," "I see myself as...")

4. Kinds of Self:

   • Real Self: What we actually are.
   • Ideal Self: What we aspire to be or feel we should be. Discrepancy between real and ideal self can lead to dissatisfaction or adjustment issues.

5. Key Concepts Related to Self:

   • Self-Concept: The overall perception or description one holds about oneself (e.g., "I am a good singer," "I am intelligent"). It can be domain-specific (academic self-concept, social self-concept). Generally positive or negative.
   • Self-Esteem: The value judgment or overall sense of self-worth one places on oneself. High self-esteem is linked to better performance, confidence, and less conformity. Low self-esteem is associated with anxiety, depression, and antisocial behaviour. Parenting styles significantly influence its development.
   • Self-Efficacy (Bandura): Belief in one's own capability to successfully perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal. High self-efficacy leads to choosing challenging tasks, persistence, and better performance. It's context-specific (e.g., high academic self-efficacy but low sports self-efficacy). Based on past performance, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal.
   • Self-Regulation: The ability to monitor, control, and organise one's own behaviour, thoughts, and emotions to achieve goals. Involves self-control (deferring gratification), willpower, and goal setting. Techniques include observation of own behaviour, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement.

II. Concept of Personality

1. Definition: Refers to characteristic and relatively stable ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that make a person unique. Derived from the Latin word 'persona' (mask).
2. Key Features:
   • Has both physical and psychological components.
   • Expression in behaviour is fairly unique to the individual.
   • Main features do not easily change over time (relative stability).
   • Dynamic – some features may change due to internal or external demands.

III. Major Approaches to Studying Personality

(A) Type Approaches: Attempt to categorise people into distinct groups based on broad patterns.

1. Hippocrates/Galen: Proposed typology based on bodily fluids (humours): Sanguine (Blood - cheerful), Phlegmatic (Phlegm - calm), Melancholic (Black Bile - sad), Choleric (Yellow Bile - irritable). (Historical significance).
2. Charak Samhita (Ayurveda): Classified people based on three doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha) and three gunas (Sattva - cleanliness, truthfulness; Rajas - intense activity, desire; Tamas - anger, arrogance, depression).
3. Sheldon: Linked physique (somatotype) to temperament:
   • Endomorphy (Fat, Soft): Relaxed, sociable ('Viscerotonia').
   • Mesomorphy (Muscular, Strong): Energetic, courageous ('Somatotonia').
   • Ectomorphy (Thin, Long): Brainy, artistic, introverted ('Cerebrotonia').
4. Jung: Introverts (prefer solitude, reserved) vs. Extraverts (outgoing, sociable). (Often considered both Type and Trait).
5. Friedman & Rosenman: Studied link between personality and coronary heart disease (CHD):
   • Type A: High motivation, impatient, feel short of time, stressed, prone to hypertension & CHD.
   • Type B: Relaxed, patient, easy-going, less stressed.
   • Type C (Morris): Cooperative, unassertive, suppress negative emotions (like anger), prone to cancer.
   • Type D (Denollet): Prone to experiencing negative emotions (like depression, anxiety) while suppressing self-expression in social interactions; linked to cardiovascular issues.

(B) Trait Approaches: Focus on identifying specific psychological attributes (traits) along which individuals differ in consistent ways.

1. Trait Definition: Relatively stable, persistent, and characteristic patterns of behaviour or dispositions to feel and act. Traits are seen as building blocks of personality.
2. Allport's Trait Theory:
   • Cardinal Traits: Dominate the entire personality (rare, e.g., Gandhian non-violence).
   • Central Traits: General characteristics (5-10) that form the basic foundations (e.g., honest, kind, anxious).
   • Secondary Traits: Situation-specific attitudes or preferences (e.g., likes quiet reading, dislikes crowds).
3. Cattell's Trait Theory: Used factor analysis.
   • Source Traits: Stable, underlying building blocks (identified 16). Measured by the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF).
   • Surface Traits: Observable behaviours resulting from source traits.
4. Eysenck's Theory: Identified three broad dimensions using factor analysis:
   • Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: Ranging from anxious, moody to calm, stable.
   • Extraversion vs. Introversion: Ranging from sociable, active to passive, quiet.
   • Psychoticism vs. Sociability: Ranging from hostile, egocentric, antisocial to friendly, empathetic (added later). Linked these to biological factors.
5. Five-Factor Model (McCrae & Costa): "Big Five" or OCEAN: Widely accepted model.
   • Openness to Experience: Imaginative, curious vs. conventional, down-to-earth.
   • Conscientiousness: Organised, responsible vs. impulsive, careless.
   • Extraversion: Sociable, talkative vs. reserved, solitary.
   • Agreeableness: Cooperative, trusting vs. suspicious, antagonistic.
   • Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): Prone to negative emotions (anxiety, depression) vs. calm, secure.

(C) Psychodynamic Approach (Freud): Emphasizes unconscious motivations, conflicts, and early childhood experiences.

1. Levels of Consciousness:
   • Conscious: Thoughts and feelings we are currently aware of.
   • Preconscious: Information not currently aware of but easily retrievable.
   • Unconscious: Repressed thoughts, desires, memories; primary source of human motivation and conflict. Cannot be accessed directly.
2. Structure of Personality:
   • Id: Present at birth. Operates on the Pleasure Principle (immediate gratification). Unconscious reservoir of instinctual drives (life instinct - libido; death instinct).
   • Ego: Develops out of Id. Operates on the Reality Principle (satisfies Id's impulses realistically and appropriately). Mediates between Id, Superego, and reality. Largely conscious and preconscious.
   • Superego: Develops last. Represents internalised societal/parental morals and values (conscience). Operates on the Morality Principle. Strives for perfection.
3. Ego Defence Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies used by the Ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.
   • Repression: Pushing threatening thoughts/memories into the unconscious (most fundamental).
   • Denial: Refusing to accept reality.
   • Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable impulses to others.
   • Rationalisation: Creating logical-sounding excuses for unacceptable behaviour.
   • Reaction Formation: Behaving in a way opposite to one's true feelings.
   • Displacement: Redirecting impulses towards a less threatening target.
   • Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
4. Stages of Psychosexual Development: Personality develops through stages focused on different erogenous zones. Fixation (unresolved conflicts) at a stage can affect adult personality.
   • Oral Stage (0-18 months): Mouth focus. Fixation -> Overeating, smoking, dependency.
   • Anal Stage (18-36 months): Anus focus (toilet training). Fixation -> Anal-retentive (orderly, stingy) or Anal-expulsive (messy, destructive).
   • Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Genital focus. Oedipus Complex (boys - castration anxiety) / Electra Complex (girls - penis envy). Identification with same-sex parent resolves conflict, leads to Superego development.
   • Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual impulses dormant. Focus on social/intellectual skills.
   • Genital Stage (Puberty onwards): Mature sexual interests.
5. Post-Freudian Approaches (Neo-Freudians): Accepted some Freudian ideas but placed more emphasis on social factors, conscious ego functions, and reduced focus on sex/aggression.
   • Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology. Collective Unconscious (shared inherited reservoir of memory traces/archetypes). Archetypes (primordial images like Mother, Hero). Focused on individuation and self-realization. Introversion/Extraversion concepts.
   • Karen Horney: Focused on social/cultural factors, basic anxiety (feeling isolated/helpless), and basic hostility. Criticized Freud's view of women (e.g., penis envy).
   • Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology. Focused on striving for superiority/overcoming inferiority (Inferiority Complex). Emphasized social interest and conscious goal-setting (Lifestyle).
   • Erich Fromm: Focused on the human need for freedom vs. belonging. Personality shaped by societal structures.

(D) Behavioural Approach: Focuses on observable behaviour and learning principles. Personality is seen as a collection of learned response patterns.

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning by association.
2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning through reinforcement and punishment. Behaviour patterns are shaped by their consequences.
3. Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Emphasizes observational learning (learning by watching others/models) and cognitive processes. Key concept: Self-Efficacy. Reciprocal determinism (behaviour, environment, and personal factors interact).

(E) Cultural Approach: Stresses the role of culture, ecology, and economic factors in shaping personality. Different cultures promote different traits (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism).

(F) Humanistic Approach: Emphasizes subjective experience, free will, and the innate tendency towards growth and self-actualization. Positive view of human nature.

1. Carl Rogers: Focused on the individual's subjective experience ('phenomenological' approach). Key concepts:
   • Fully Functioning Person: Open to experience, lives in the present, trusts feelings, creative, fulfilled.
   • Self-Concept (Real Self vs. Ideal Self): Congruence leads to adjustment, incongruence leads to anxiety.
   • Unconditional Positive Regard: Accepting and valuing a person regardless of their behaviour; crucial for healthy development.
2. Abraham Maslow: Focused on Self-Actualization – the motivation to fulfill one's potential. Studied healthy, creative people. Proposed a Hierarchy of Needs (physiological -> safety -> belongingness/love -> esteem -> self-actualization).

IV. Assessment of Personality

Methods used to measure and evaluate personality characteristics.

1. Self-Report Measures: Individuals respond to questionnaires/inventories about their own feelings, thoughts, behaviours.
   • Examples: MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - detects psychopathology), EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire), 16PF (Cattell).
   • Advantages: Objective scoring, easy administration.
   • Disadvantages: Prone to social desirability bias (responding in socially acceptable ways), acquiescence (tendency to agree). Requires self-awareness.
2. Projective Techniques: Use ambiguous stimuli (inkblots, pictures) onto which individuals project their own unconscious needs, feelings, and conflicts. Based on psychodynamic assumptions.
   • Examples:
     • Rorschach Inkblot Test: Interpretation of symmetrical inkblots.
     • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Creating stories about ambiguous pictures. Assesses needs, motivations, conflicts.
     • Sentence Completion Test: Finishing incomplete sentences.
     • Draw-a-Person Test: Drawing a person, interpretations based on features.
   • Advantages: Can reveal unconscious aspects. Bypasses conscious defences.
   • Disadvantages: Subjective interpretation, questionable reliability and validity, complex scoring.
3. Behavioural Analysis: Observing behaviour in realistic or controlled settings.
   • Interview: Structured or unstructured conversation. Limitations: Interviewer bias, participant impression management.
   • Observation: Watching behaviour in natural or contrived settings. Limitations: Observer bias, time-consuming.
   • Behavioural Ratings: Subjective judgments by observers on specific trait dimensions. Can suffer from biases (Halo effect).
   • Nomination: Peer assessment within a group.
   • Situational Tests: Providing a structured situation and observing performance (e.g., stress interview).

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. The aspect of self that relates to attributes making an individual unique, such as personal beliefs or abilities, is known as:
   a) Social Identity
   b) Ideal Self
   c) Personal Identity
   d) Self-Efficacy

2. According to Freud, which structure of personality operates on the 'Reality Principle'?
   a) Id
   b) Ego
   c) Superego
   d) Collective Unconscious

3. Which personality assessment technique requires individuals to respond to ambiguous stimuli like inkblots or pictures?
   a) Self-Report Measure
   b) Behavioural Rating
   c) Projective Technique
   d) Situational Test

4. The 'Big Five' or OCEAN model of personality belongs to which approach?
   a) Psychodynamic Approach
   b) Humanistic Approach
   c) Type Approach
   d) Trait Approach

5. Albert Bandura's concept of 'Self-Efficacy' refers to:
   a) One's overall sense of self-worth.
   b) The belief in one's capability to succeed in specific situations.
   c) The ability to control one's impulses and delay gratification.
   d) The unconscious strategies used to reduce anxiety.

6. In Friedman and Rosenman's typology, which personality type is characterized by impatience, high motivation, and proneness to stress?
   a) Type B
   b) Type C
   c) Type A
   d) Type D

7. Carl Rogers emphasized the importance of ________ for healthy personality development, which involves accepting a person regardless of their behaviour.
   a) Self-Actualization
   b) Unconditional Positive Regard
   c) Self-Efficacy
   d) Collective Unconscious

8. Pushing threatening thoughts or memories into the unconscious is a defence mechanism known as:
   a) Projection
   b) Denial
   c) Rationalisation
   d) Repression

9. Which of the following is NOT one of Sheldon's somatotypes?
   a) Endomorphy
   b) Mesomorphy
   c) Ectomorphy
   d) Choleric

10. The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is an example of:
    a) A Projective Test
    b) A Behavioural Observation technique
    c) A Self-Report Measure
    d) A Situational Test

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. c) Personal Identity
2. b) Ego
3. c) Projective Technique
4. d) Trait Approach
5. b) The belief in one's capability to succeed in specific situations.
6. c) Type A
7. b) Unconditional Positive Regard
8. d) Repression
9. d) Choleric (This belongs to Hippocrates/Galen's typology)
10. c) A Self-Report Measure

Remember to correlate these notes with your NCERT textbook for diagrams, specific examples, and context. Focus on understanding the core concepts, the key figures associated with each theory, and the different methods of assessment, including their strengths and weaknesses. Good luck with your preparation!