Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 (Era of one-party dominance) – Political Science-II Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 2: 'Era of One-Party Dominance'. This period is crucial for understanding the foundations of India's democratic journey and the unique political landscape that emerged after independence. Pay close attention, as these concepts frequently appear in government exams.

Chapter 2: Era of One-Party Dominance - Detailed Notes

1. Context: The Challenge of Nation-Building and Democracy

• Post-Independence Scenario: India gained independence in 1947 amidst immense challenges: partition violence, refugee crisis, integration of princely states, poverty, illiteracy, and vast social diversity.
• Commitment to Democracy: Despite these challenges, India's leadership was firmly committed to establishing a democratic political system based on universal adult franchise. This was a bold experiment, as many post-colonial nations succumbed to authoritarian rule.
• Adoption of the Constitution: The Constitution was adopted on 26 Nov 1949 and came into effect on 26 Jan 1950. It laid down the framework for democratic elections.

2. The First General Elections (1951-52): A Landmark

• Setting up the Machinery: The Election Commission of India (ECI) was set up in January 1950, with Sukumar Sen as the first Chief Election Commissioner.
• Challenges:
  • Delimitation: Drawing boundaries of electoral constituencies.
  • Electoral Rolls: Preparing voter lists was a massive task. Initially, many women were registered as "wife of..." or "daughter of...", which the ECI refused to accept, demanding proper registration.
  • Scale: Vast country size, large population (17 crore eligible voters initially), high illiteracy (only about 15% literate).
  • Logistics: Training lakhs of polling staff and officers.
• Innovations: Due to illiteracy, special methods like separate ballot boxes for each candidate with their election symbol were used initially.
• Significance: The successful conduct of the first general election was hailed globally as a remarkable feat and a "gamble" that paid off, establishing India's democratic credentials. It covered elections for both the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies simultaneously.

3. Congress Dominance: Nature and Reasons

• Electoral Performance: The Indian National Congress (INC) won overwhelmingly in the first three general elections (1952, 1957, 1962).
  • 1952: Won 364 out of 489 Lok Sabha seats. The Communist Party of India (CPI) came second with 16 seats.
  • 1957 & 1962: Congress maintained a similar dominant position in the Lok Sabha and most State Assemblies.
• Nature of Dominance:
  • Democratic Context: This dominance occurred under fully democratic conditions with free and fair elections and the existence of opposition parties. It was not like one-party systems in countries like China, Cuba, or Syria (then).
  • Comparison: Similar dominance was seen in other countries (e.g., PRI in Mexico for decades), but often with questionable democratic practices. India's case was unique due to its democratic foundation.
• Reasons for Dominance:
  • Legacy of Freedom Struggle: Congress was the principal organisation leading the independence movement, giving it immense legitimacy and goodwill. It was seen as the inheritor of the national movement.
  • Established Organisation: It was the oldest party (founded 1885) with a well-spread organisational network down to the local level, unlike nascent opposition parties.
  • Charismatic Leadership: Led by popular figures like Jawaharlal Nehru, who had national appeal and stature.
  • Umbrella Party / Social and Ideological Coalition: Congress represented diverse interests and ideologies – peasants, industrialists, urban dwellers, villagers, workers, owners, different castes, religions, and linguistic groups. It accommodated conservatives and radicals, pacifists and militants, right, left, and centre. This inclusive character allowed it to aggregate diverse interests.
  • Management of Factions: Internal differences and ambitions were managed through factionalism within the party. These factions, often based on ideological leanings or personal loyalties, competed within the Congress framework rather than leaving the party. This internal competition served as a balancing mechanism and prevented major splits initially.
  • First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) System: This electoral system often exaggerates the seat share compared to the vote share. Congress often won a large majority of seats with less than 50% of the popular vote, as opposition votes were divided.

4. Emergence of Opposition Parties

• Though Congress dominated, various opposition parties existed from the beginning, playing a crucial role in maintaining democratic character.
• Role of Opposition: Provided criticism, kept the ruling party in check, offered alternative programmes, groomed future leaders, and ensured democratic accountability.
• Major Opposition Parties:
  • Socialist Party:
    • Origins: Formed in 1948 by a group that left the Congress (Congress Socialist Party was formed within Congress in 1934).
    • Ideology: Believed in democratic socialism, critical of Congress for favouring capitalists and landlords and ignoring workers/peasants. Faced dilemmas about cooperation/criticism of Congress.
    • Leaders: Acharya Narendra Dev, Jayaprakash Narayan (JP), Ram Manohar Lohia.
    • Challenges: Suffered many splits and reunions, leading to the formation of several socialist parties (Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, Praja Socialist Party, Samyukta Socialist Party).
  • Communist Party of India (CPI):
    • Origins: Inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution; active in India since the early 1920s.
    • Ideology: Initially advocated violent revolution but later (after 1951) decided to participate in general elections. Believed in communism based on Marxist-Leninist principles.
    • Support Base: Strong support in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala.
    • Key Event: Formed the government in Kerala in 1957 (led by E.M.S. Namboodiripad), the first time a Communist party won power through democratic elections anywhere in the world. This government was dismissed by the Centre in 1959 under Article 356, a controversial decision.
    • Leaders: A.K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, P.C. Joshi.
    • Split: Split in 1964 into CPI and CPI(M) over ideological differences (relationship with Congress, assessment of Soviet Union vs. China).
  • Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS):
    • Origins: Formed in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mookerjee. Precursor to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Roots in Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Hindu Mahasabha.
    • Ideology: Emphasised 'One Country, One Culture, One Nation' (cultural nationalism). Advocated for 'Akhand Bharat' (Undivided India). Stood for Hindi as the official language and opposed concessions to minorities. Initially supported a free economy, later focused on Hindutva.
    • Support Base: Mainly in Hindi-speaking states (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh).
    • Leaders: Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Deendayal Upadhyaya (known for 'Integral Humanism').
  • Swatantra Party:
    • Origins: Formed in August 1959, after the Nagpur resolution of Congress which adopted land ceilings and cooperative farming.
    • Ideology: Advocated for individual freedom, opposed state intervention in the economy (critical of planning, public sector, licensing). Criticised Congress's socialist leanings and non-aligned foreign policy (advocated closer ties with the US).
    • Support Base: Attracted landlords, princes, business classes, and industrialists dissatisfied with Congress policies.
    • Leaders: C. Rajagopalachari ('Rajaji'), K.M. Munshi, N.G. Ranga, Minoo Masani.
    • Distinctiveness: Offered a clear right-wing alternative to Congress; had less committed cadre compared to other parties.

5. Conclusion: Foundation of a Competitive Party System

• The first phase of India's democracy was marked by Congress dominance, but it wasn't a period devoid of political competition.
• The existence and functioning of opposition parties, internal factionalism within Congress, and the adherence to democratic norms ensured that the dominance did not turn into authoritarianism.
• This era laid the foundation for a multi-party competitive system that would evolve significantly in later decades.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Who was the first Chief Election Commissioner of India?
   (a) Jawaharlal Nehru
   (b) Sardar Patel
   (c) Sukumar Sen
   (d) B.R. Ambedkar

2. The first General Elections in India (1951-52) involved simultaneous elections for:
   (a) Lok Sabha only
   (b) State Assemblies only
   (c) Lok Sabha and State Assemblies
   (d) Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

3. Which factor was least responsible for the Congress party's dominance in the first three general elections?
   (a) Legacy of the freedom struggle
   (b) Charismatic leadership of Nehru
   (c) Weak financial backing compared to opposition
   (d) Its nature as a broad social and ideological coalition

4. The 'umbrella party' characteristic of the Congress in the early years refers to its:
   (a) Use of an umbrella as an election symbol
   (b) Ability to provide shelter to refugees
   (c) Capacity to accommodate diverse interests and ideologies
   (d) Strong central leadership structure

5. Which party formed the world's first democratically elected communist government in Kerala in 1957?
   (a) Socialist Party
   (b) Communist Party of India (CPI)
   (c) Swatantra Party
   (d) Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)

6. The Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), formed in 1951, was the precursor to which present-day major political party?
   (a) Indian National Congress (INC)
   (b) Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))
   (c) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
   (d) Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)

7. Which leader is primarily associated with the concept of 'Integral Humanism'?
   (a) Syama Prasad Mookerjee
   (b) Deendayal Upadhyaya
   (c) C. Rajagopalachari
   (d) Ram Manohar Lohia

8. The Swatantra Party, formed in 1959, primarily advocated for:
   (a) State-controlled economy and land reforms
   (b) Non-alignment and friendship with the Soviet Union
   (c) Individual freedom and minimal state intervention in the economy
   (d) Cultural nationalism and Hindi as the sole official language

9. The internal competition among different groups within the Congress party during the era of dominance is referred to as:
   (a) Coalition politics
   (b) Factionalism
   (c) Defection
   (d) Plebiscite

10. The split in the Communist Party of India (CPI) in 1964 led to the formation of:
    (a) Socialist Party
    (b) Swatantra Party
    (c) Communist Party of India (Marxist) - CPI(M)
    (d) Praja Socialist Party

Answer Key:

1. (c)
2. (c)
3. (c)
4. (c)
5. (b)
6. (c)
7. (b)
8. (c)
9. (b)
10. (c)

Study these notes thoroughly. Understanding this foundational period is key to grasping the subsequent evolution of Indian politics. Let me know if any specific point needs further clarification.