class 12 notes

Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 (The end of bipolarity) – Contemporary World Politics Book

Philoid

Philoid

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Contemporary World Politics
Alright class, let's focus today on a pivotal chapter for understanding contemporary world politics: Chapter 2, 'The End of Bipolarity'. This chapter explains the collapse of one of the two superpowers, the USSR, and the profound consequences that followed. For your government exam preparation, understanding the nuances here is crucial.

Chapter 2: The End of Bipolarity - Detailed Notes

1. Introduction: The Context

  • The Cold War (approx. 1945-1991) was defined by Bipolarity: the dominance of two superpowers, the USA (leading the Western, capitalist bloc) and the USSR (leading the Eastern, communist bloc).
  • The Berlin Wall, symbolizing the division between East and West, was breached by the people in November 1989. This event marked the symbolic beginning of the end of the Cold War and communist rule in Eastern Europe.
  • The disintegration of the Soviet Union itself in December 1991 formally ended the bipolar world order.

2. What was the Soviet System?

  • Origins: Came into being after the Socialist Revolution in Russia (1917), inspired by socialist ideals, opposing capitalism, and advocating an egalitarian society.
  • Political System:
    • Dominated by one party: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). No opposition allowed.
    • Highly centralized and authoritarian.
    • Lack of democracy and freedom of speech for citizens.
    • Tight administrative control over all institutions.
  • Economic System:
    • State-controlled planned economy. State ownership was dominant (land, productive assets).
    • Aimed to eliminate private property and market forces.
  • Strengths (Initially & Perceived):
    • Complex communications network, vast energy resources (oil, iron, steel), machinery production, transport sector.
    • Ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens (health, education, childcare, subsidies). No unemployment (in theory).
    • Became a great power after WWII, rivaling the US militarily.
  • Weaknesses (Became Apparent Over Time):
    • Bureaucratic and Authoritarian: Made life difficult for citizens; stifled initiative.
    • Lack of Democracy & Freedom: Led to citizen dissatisfaction and alienation. Jokes and cartoons often expressed dissent subtly.
    • Dominance of Russia: Other regions/republics within the USSR often felt neglected or dominated.
    • Economic Stagnation: Lagged behind the West in technology, infrastructure, and fulfilling consumer aspirations. Severe shortages of consumer goods. Productivity was low.
    • Arms Race Burden: Huge military spending strained the economy significantly.
    • Afghanistan Intervention (1979-1989): A costly military and political blunder that further weakened the system.
    • Communist Party Accountability: The party officials became unaccountable to the people and enjoyed special privileges. Corruption increased.

3. Gorbachev and the Disintegration

  • Mikhail Gorbachev: Became General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985.
  • Need for Reform: Gorbachev recognized the deep-seated problems (economic stagnation, political apathy, technological lag) and sought to reform the system to catch up with the West and democratize society.
  • Key Reforms:
    • Perestroika (Restructuring): Focused on economic reforms – allowing some private enterprise, reducing state control, moving towards market mechanisms (though cautiously).
    • Glasnost (Openness): Allowed greater freedom of speech, press, and political discussion. Aimed to reduce corruption and make the government more transparent and accountable.
  • Unintended Consequences:
    • Reforms unleashed forces and expectations that Gorbachev couldn't fully control.
    • Glasnost allowed citizens to openly criticize the past and present failures of the Soviet system.
    • Rise of Nationalism: Feelings of sovereignty grew rapidly within various Soviet republics (especially the Baltic states - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; also Ukraine, Georgia, Russia itself). People discovered the extent of economic backwardness and political subjugation.
    • Sections within the CPSU opposed his reforms.

4. The Process of Disintegration

  • Nationalist Movements: Gained momentum, particularly after events in Eastern Europe (fall of Berlin Wall, collapse of communist regimes there).
  • August 1991 Coup: Communist Party hardliners, alarmed by the pace of change and potential dissolution, staged a coup against Gorbachev.
    • The coup failed due to popular resistance, led prominently by Boris Yeltsin (then elected President of the Russian Republic).
    • This event accelerated the collapse: weakened Gorbachev, strengthened Yeltsin and the Republics' presidents, discredited the CPSU.
  • Republics Declare Independence: Power shifted from the Soviet centre to the Republics. Central Asian republics, initially hesitant, also declared independence fearing Russian dominance.
  • December 1991: Under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin (Russia), Leonid Kravchuk (Ukraine), and Stanislav Shushkevich (Belarus), the leaders of these three major republics declared the Soviet Union dissolved and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
  • Formal End: Gorbachev resigned as President of the USSR on 25 December 1991. The Soviet Union ceased to exist.

5. Why did the Soviet Union Disintegrate? (Key Reasons)

  • Internal Weaknesses: Economic stagnation, failure to meet consumer aspirations, vast military spending, authoritarian political system, lack of legitimacy.
  • Gorbachev's Reforms: While intended to save the system, Perestroika and Glasnost inadvertently accelerated its collapse by exposing flaws and loosening central control.
  • Rise of Nationalism: Strong desire for sovereignty among various republics.
  • Citizen Dissatisfaction: Awareness of the West's progress and disillusionment with the Soviet reality.
  • Party Corruption & Privilege: Alienation of the public from the ruling elite.

6. Consequences of Disintegration

  • End of Cold War: Marked the definitive end to the East-West confrontation and the arms race (though nuclear proliferation remains a concern).
  • Shift in World Power: End of bipolarity. The US emerged as the sole superpower, leading to a unipolar moment. Questions arose about whether the world would remain unipolar or become multipolar.
  • Emergence of New Countries: Many new states emerged with their own independent foreign policies and aspirations. Democratic and capitalist systems were adopted by most.
  • Dominance of Liberal Democracy: Seen by some as the 'end of history' (Fukuyama's thesis) - the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.
  • Role of International Institutions: Institutions like the World Bank and IMF became influential advisors to the transitioning economies. NATO began considering expansion eastward.
  • Risk of Conflicts: Opened possibilities for new alliances, conflicts, and instabilities in the former Soviet space.

7. Shock Therapy in Post-Communist Regimes

  • Definition: An urgent, market-oriented reform strategy adopted by Russia, Central Asia, and East European countries transitioning from communism to democracy and capitalism. Influenced heavily by the World Bank and IMF.
  • Features:
    • Rapid shift to free markets: Deregulation, removal of state controls.
    • Privatization: Selling off state-owned assets and industries to private individuals/companies.
    • Currency convertibility and free trade regimes.
    • Drastic reduction in state subsidies and social welfare programs.
  • Consequences:
    • Economic Collapse: Destroyed old structures without building viable alternatives quickly. Value of the Ruble declined sharply. High inflation wiped out savings.
    • "Largest Garage Sale in History": State industries were undervalued and sold cheaply, often to insiders or foreign investors. Led to the rise of oligarchs.
    • Social Hardship: Withdrawal of state welfare led to increased poverty and inequality. A new divide emerged between rich and poor. Rise of mafia/organized crime.
    • Weak Democratic Institutions: Economic turmoil often hampered the development of strong democratic practices. Some leaders became authoritarian.
    • Disintegration and Conflicts: Economic hardship contributed to separatist movements and conflicts in some regions (e.g., Chechnya, Dagestan in Russia; civil wars in Tajikistan, Georgia).

8. Tensions and Conflicts in Former Soviet Republics

  • Many former republics experienced civil wars and insurgencies (e.g., Tajikistan, Chechnya, Georgia).
  • Disputes over borders, resources (especially oil in the Caspian Sea region), and ethnic tensions flared up.
  • External powers (like the US) began to show interest in the oil-rich regions of Central Asia.

9. India and Post-Communist Countries

  • India maintained cordial relations with the USSR. The collapse affected India's foreign policy, economy, and military supplies to some extent.
  • India adapted by strengthening ties with the US and other Western countries, while also maintaining a strong relationship with Russia (the successor state to the USSR).
  • India also established relations with the newly independent countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

Key Takeaway: The end of bipolarity was a watershed moment, reshaping global politics, economics, and ideology. Understanding the causes, processes, and consequences of the Soviet collapse is fundamental to analyzing the world we live in today.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

  1. Which event is often considered the symbolic beginning of the end of the Cold War?
    (a) The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
    (b) The fall of the Berlin Wall
    (c) The establishment of the Warsaw Pact
    (d) The Cuban Missile Crisis

  2. Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of 'Perestroika' primarily referred to:
    (a) Political openness and freedom of speech
    (b) Military restructuring and disarmament
    (c) Economic restructuring towards market principles
    (d) Cultural exchange programs with the West

  3. The August 1991 coup attempt in the Soviet Union was staged by:
    (a) Reformists supporting Gorbachev
    (b) Nationalist leaders of the Republics
    (c) Communist Party hardliners opposing reforms
    (d) Military leaders seeking alliance with NATO

  4. Which three republics formally declared the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991?
    (a) Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan
    (b) Russia, Belarus, Lithuania
    (c) Russia, Ukraine, Belarus
    (d) Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania

  5. What was 'Shock Therapy' in the context of post-Soviet transition?
    (a) A gradual process of political reform
    (b) A rapid, market-oriented economic transformation strategy
    (c) A military doctrine adopted by the CIS
    (d) A social welfare program to cushion the transition

  6. Which of the following was NOT a major reason for the disintegration of the USSR?
    (a) Economic stagnation and technological lag
    (b) The rise of nationalism within Soviet republics
    (c) The success of the Afghanistan intervention
    (d) Lack of democracy and political freedom

  7. The immediate consequence of the Soviet Union's collapse on the global power structure was:
    (a) The emergence of a multipolar world
    (b) The strengthening of the Non-Aligned Movement
    (c) The rise of the US as the sole superpower (unipolar moment)
    (d) The formation of a strong European Union military alliance

  8. The term 'Glasnost' introduced by Gorbachev refers to:
    (a) Economic decentralization
    (b) Increased military spending
    (c) Political openness and transparency
    (d) Privatization of state assets

  9. What was a major negative consequence of 'Shock Therapy' in many former Soviet republics?
    (a) Strengthening of social welfare systems
    (b) Rapid decrease in inequality
    (c) Economic collapse and high inflation ("Garage Sale" of industries)
    (d) Smooth and stable development of democratic institutions

  10. Which political figure played a key role in resisting the August 1991 coup and became the first President of the Russian Federation?
    (a) Mikhail Gorbachev
    (b) Leonid Brezhnev
    (c) Boris Yeltsin
    (d) Vladimir Putin

Answer Key:

  1. (b)
  2. (c)
  3. (c)
  4. (c)
  5. (b)
  6. (c)
  7. (c)
  8. (c)
  9. (c)
  10. (c)

Make sure you revise these points thoroughly. Understanding the causal links – how the weaknesses of the Soviet system led to Gorbachev's reforms, and how those reforms, in turn, contributed to the final disintegration – is key. Good luck with your preparation!

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