Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 (International organisations) – Contemporary World Politics Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 6, 'International Organisations'. This is a crucial chapter, not just for your board exams but also for understanding the complex dynamics of contemporary world politics, which frequently appear in government exam questions. Pay close attention as we break down why these organizations exist, how they function, and the debates surrounding their relevance and reform.

Chapter 6: International Organisations - Detailed Notes

1. Why International Organisations?

• Need for Cooperation: In an increasingly interconnected world, many problems transcend national boundaries (e.g., disease, climate change, conflict, economic instability). No single nation can solve these alone.
• Managing Interdependence: International organisations provide platforms and mechanisms for states to cooperate, manage disagreements, share information, and establish common rules and standards.
• Providing Forums: They offer spaces for dialogue, negotiation, and peaceful resolution of disputes.
• Collecting Information & Research: Many organisations gather crucial data and conduct research on global issues, informing policy decisions.
• Examples: The United Nations (UN), World Health Organization (WHO), World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank.

2. Evolution of the UN

• Predecessor: The League of Nations: Formed after World War I (1920) to prevent future wars. However, it failed due to lack of universal membership (USA never joined), inability to enforce decisions, and the rise of aggressive nationalism leading to WWII.
• Formation of the UN: Established in 1945, immediately after World War II, learning from the League's failures. The UN Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by 50 countries (Poland signed later, becoming the 51st original member). It officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 (UN Day).
• Objective: To prevent international conflict and facilitate cooperation among states. Its formation was driven by the desire to avoid another devastating global war.

3. Objectives of the UN (As per the UN Charter)

• Maintain international peace and security.
• Develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for equal rights and self-determination.
• Achieve international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian problems.
• Promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
• Be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations to attain these common ends.

4. Structure and Principal Organs of the UN

• a) General Assembly (UNGA):
  • All 193 member states (as of late 2023) are represented, each with one vote.
  • Functions like a global parliament – discusses global issues, makes recommendations (non-binding resolutions), approves the budget, elects non-permanent members to the UNSC, appoints the Secretary-General (on UNSC recommendation).
  • Major decisions require a two-thirds majority; others by simple majority.
• b) Security Council (UNSC):
  • Primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security.
  • Composition: 15 members:
    • 5 Permanent Members (P5): China, France, Russia (successor to USSR), UK, USA. They possess veto power – a negative vote by any P5 member can block a substantive resolution.
    • 10 Non-Permanent Members: Elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms, based on geographical representation. They do not have veto power.
  • Functions: Can impose sanctions, authorize peacekeeping operations, and authorize the use of force. Its decisions (resolutions) are binding on all member states.
• c) Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):
  • Coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and its specialized agencies.
  • Deals with issues like development, human rights, education, health, etc.
  • Has 54 members elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms.
• d) International Court of Justice (ICJ):
  • Principal judicial organ, located in The Hague, Netherlands.
  • Settles legal disputes between states submitted to it by them (based on consent).
  • Gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs and agencies.
  • Comprises 15 judges elected for nine-year terms by the UNGA and UNSC.
• e) Secretariat:
  • Administrative arm of the UN, headed by the Secretary-General.
  • Appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term.
  • Carries out the day-to-day work of the UN, implements decisions, and manages peacekeeping operations.
  • Brings global issues to the attention of other UN bodies.
• f) Trusteeship Council:
  • Established to supervise the administration of Trust Territories (former colonies) transitioning to independence.
  • Suspended operations in 1994 after Palau, the last trust territory, gained independence.

5. Key UN Agencies (Specialized Agencies)

• WHO (World Health Organization): Coordinates international health work, deals with health crises (like pandemics), sets health standards.
• UNDP (United Nations Development Programme): Focuses on poverty reduction, democratic governance, crisis prevention, and sustainable development. Publishes the Human Development Report.
• UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees): Protects refugees and helps them find solutions (resettlement, return, integration).
• UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund): Works for children's rights, survival, development, and protection globally.
• UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Promotes international cooperation in education, science, culture, and communication. Designates World Heritage Sites.
• ILO (International Labour Organization): Promotes social justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights.
• (Bretton Woods Institutions - closely linked to UN):
  • IMF (International Monetary Fund): Oversees the global financial system, provides financial assistance (loans) to countries facing balance of payments problems, often with conditions (structural adjustments).
  • World Bank: Provides loans and grants to governments of low- and middle-income countries for capital projects, focusing on development and poverty reduction.

6. Reform of the UN after the Cold War

• Context: The end of the Cold War (around 1991) dramatically changed the global political landscape. The bipolar world order collapsed, new countries emerged, and new challenges arose (genocide, civil war, terrorism, climate change).
• Need for Reform:
  • Relevance: To remain effective in the changed world.
  • Representation: UNSC composition reflects the post-WWII power balance, not current global realities.
  • Effectiveness: Criticisms regarding veto power paralysis, bureaucratic inefficiency, and inability to prevent major conflicts.
• Two Basic Kinds of Reforms Debated:
  • Reform of Structures and Processes: Primarily focused on the UN Security Council.
    • Demand for Expansion: Increase in both permanent and non-permanent members to reflect contemporary power realities (economic, military) and geographical diversity.
    • Criteria Proposed for New Permanent Members (Debated):
      • Major economic power.
      • Major military power.
      • Substantial contributor to the UN budget.
      • Big nation in terms of population.
      • Nation that respects democracy and human rights.
      • A country that would make the Council more representative of world diversity (geography, economic systems, culture).
    • Issue of Veto Power: Should new permanent members get veto power? Should the veto be abolished or modified? This is highly contentious.
  • Review of the Issues within UN's Jurisdiction:
    • Should the UN intervene more in member states' internal affairs, especially concerning human rights violations or humanitarian crises? (Peacekeeping vs. Peace enforcement vs. Humanitarian Intervention).
    • Focus on development, health, environment, population control, human rights, gender equality, etc.

7. India and UN Reforms

• Strong Candidate for Permanent Membership: India actively seeks permanent membership in a reformed UNSC.
• Arguments Supporting India's Claim:
  • Second-most populous country; world's largest democracy.
  • Significant and growing economic power.
  • Long history of contributions to UN peacekeeping operations.
  • Regular financial contributor to the UN.
  • Independent foreign policy tradition.
  • Nuclear weapons capability (though this is sometimes seen negatively by others).
  • Represents the interests of developing countries.
• Challenges/Opposition:
  • Opposition from Pakistan (regional rivalry).
  • Concerns from China.
  • The "Coffee Club" (Uniting for Consensus group) – countries like Italy, Pakistan, Mexico, Egypt – oppose adding new permanent members, favouring expansion only in the non-permanent category.
  • Difficulties in agreeing on criteria and specific candidates.

8. The UN in a Unipolar World (Post-Cold War US Dominance)

• US Influence: The US is the sole superpower, significantly impacting the UN.
  • Largest financial contributor.
  • UN headquarters is in New York City (US territory).
  • Many UN officials are US citizens.
  • Significant military and economic power gives it leverage.
  • US can sometimes ignore or bypass the UN (e.g., 2003 Iraq invasion without explicit UNSC approval).
• UN's Relevance Persists:
  • Legitimacy: The UN provides a crucial source of international legitimacy for actions. US often seeks UN approval.
  • Forum for Dialogue: It remains the only place where 193 countries can meet, discuss issues, and forge consensus, even challenging the US sometimes.
  • Bringing World Together: Essential for tackling global issues requiring collective action.
  • Constraining US Power?: While US influence is strong, the UN provides a platform for other countries to moderate or question US attitudes and policies. The Secretary-General can act as a moral compass.

9. Other Important International Organisations

• World Bank (WB): Established 1944 (Bretton Woods). Focuses on long-term development loans, poverty reduction. Criticized for setting conditions, high interest rates, and perceived Western bias.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF): Established 1944 (Bretton Woods). Oversees global financial stability, provides short-term loans for balance of payments issues. Criticized for imposing harsh conditions (structural adjustment) and voting structure favouring wealthy nations.
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Established 1995, successor to GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 1948). Sets rules for global trade, aims to reduce tariffs and trade barriers. Criticized for favouring developed countries' interests, ignoring concerns of developing nations regarding labour, environment, health. Decisions made by consensus but heavily influenced by major economic powers.
• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Established 1957. Promotes peaceful use of nuclear energy and technology; implements safeguards against military use of nuclear materials (verification and inspection).
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Not international organizations in the same sense (not formed by states) but influential global actors.
  • Amnesty International: Campaigns for human rights globally, highlights violations.
  • Human Rights Watch: Investigates and reports on human rights abuses worldwide.
  • Play crucial roles in advocacy, research, monitoring, and shaping public opinion and government policies.

Conclusion:

International organisations like the UN are imperfect but indispensable. They face challenges of representation, efficiency, funding, and navigating power politics, especially in a world dominated by strong states. However, in an era of globalization and complex transnational challenges, they remain vital platforms for cooperation, conflict management, setting norms, and addressing shared global problems. Their reform is crucial for enhancing their legitimacy and effectiveness in the 21st century.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. When was the United Nations officially established?
   a) 26 June 1945
   b) 24 October 1945
   c) 10 January 1920
   d) 1 September 1939

2. Which of the following countries is NOT a permanent member (P5) of the UN Security Council?
   a) France
   b) Germany
   c) China
   d) Russia

3. The 'Veto Power' in the UN Security Council means:
   a) All members must agree for a resolution to pass.
   b) Any non-permanent member can block a resolution.
   c) A negative vote by any permanent member can block a substantive resolution.
   d) The Secretary-General can overrule the Council's decision.

4. Which principal organ of the UN functions like a global parliament with representation from all member states?
   a) Security Council
   b) Secretariat
   c) International Court of Justice
   d) General Assembly

5. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is located in:
   a) New York, USA
   b) Geneva, Switzerland
   c) The Hague, Netherlands
   d) Paris, France

6. Which UN agency is primarily concerned with protecting refugees?
   a) UNICEF
   b) WHO
   c) UNHCR
   d) UNDP

7. The Bretton Woods institutions, established in 1944, include:
   a) WTO and WHO
   b) IMF and World Bank
   c) UNGA and UNSC
   d) IAEA and UNESCO

8. Which organization sets the rules for international trade?
   a) International Monetary Fund (IMF)
   b) World Bank (WB)
   c) World Trade Organization (WTO)
   d) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

9. One of the main arguments against India's bid for permanent membership in the UNSC comes from:
   a) Its large population
   b) Its democratic credentials
   c) Opposition from regional rivals like Pakistan and the "Coffee Club"
   d) Its contributions to UN peacekeeping

10. In the context of the UN in a unipolar world, US influence stems significantly from:
    a) Its geographical location in Europe
    b) Being the largest financial contributor and having significant military power
    c) Its lack of veto power in the UNSC
    d) Its policy of non-interference in UN affairs

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. b) 24 October 1945
2. b) Germany
3. c) A negative vote by any permanent member can block a substantive resolution.
4. d) General Assembly
5. c) The Hague, Netherlands
6. c) UNHCR
7. b) IMF and World Bank
8. c) World Trade Organization (WTO)
9. c) Opposition from regional rivals like Pakistan and the "Coffee Club"
10. b) Being the largest financial contributor and having significant military power

Study these notes thoroughly. Understanding the structure, functions, and the ongoing debates about these organizations is key to grasping contemporary global politics. Let me know if any part needs further clarification.