Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 8 (Environment and natural resources) – Contemporary World Politics Book

Detailed Notes with MCQs of Chapter 8: 'Environment and Natural Resources' from your 'Contemporary World Politics' book. This chapter is crucial because it highlights how environmental issues, once considered purely scientific or local, have become central to global politics and security. For your government exam preparation, understanding the key concepts, historical milestones, and geopolitical dimensions is essential.

Here are the detailed notes:

Chapter 8: Environment and Natural Resources - Detailed Notes

1. Introduction: Environmental Concerns in Global Politics

• Shift in Focus: Traditionally, world politics focused on military threats and balance of power. However, since the 1960s, environmental degradation has emerged as a significant global challenge affecting human well-being and security.
• Global Nature: Issues like climate change, ozone layer depletion, loss of biodiversity, and pollution of international waters transcend national boundaries, requiring international cooperation.
• Interconnectedness: Environmental degradation often exacerbates existing political tensions (e.g., resource scarcity leading to conflict) and creates new ones.

2. Key Milestones and Concepts

• The Club of Rome (1972): Published the influential book "Limits to Growth", highlighting the potential depletion of natural resources due to growing world population and industrialization. This spurred global awareness.
• UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme): Established following the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm (1972). It works to facilitate international environmental cooperation and awareness.
• Brundtland Report (1987): Titled "Our Common Future", this report, commissioned by the UN World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), popularized the concept of 'Sustainable Development'.
  • Sustainable Development Definition: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) / Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, 1992): A landmark event.
  • Outcomes: Produced conventions dealing with climate change (UNFCCC), biodiversity (CBD), and desertification; the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; and a statement of Forest Principles.
  • Agenda 21: A comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development in the 21st century.
  • Emergence of CBDR: Solidified the principle of 'Common But Differentiated Responsibilities'.

3. The Global Commons

• Definition: Resources or areas that lie outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state and require common governance by the international community.
• Examples: Earth's atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor (high seas), and outer space.
• Challenges: Cooperation is difficult due to differing interests, scientific uncertainty, difficulties in monitoring compliance, and the 'tragedy of the commons' (where individual actors acting rationally deplete a shared resource).
• Key Agreements:
  • Antarctic Treaty (1959): Demilitarized Antarctica, promoting scientific cooperation.
  • Montreal Protocol (1987): Phased out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs). Considered highly successful.
  • UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982): Governs maritime activities and resources.

4. Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)

• Core Idea: Acknowledges that all states share a common responsibility to protect the global environment, but recognizes that states have contributed differently to environmental degradation and possess varying capacities (economic, technological) to address it.
• North-South Divide: This principle is central to the debate between developed (Global North) and developing (Global South) countries.
  • Developing Countries' Argument (South): Emphasize historical responsibility – the North industrialized earlier and caused the bulk of accumulated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. They argue they have a 'right to develop' and need financial and technological support from the North to adopt cleaner technologies. Their per capita emissions are often much lower.
  • Developed Countries' Argument (North): While acknowledging historical contributions, they stress the need for all countries, especially rapidly growing economies in the South (like China, India), to curb current and future emissions for effective global action.
• UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992): Explicitly recognizes CBDR. It divides countries into Annex I (industrialized countries + economies in transition) and Non-Annex I (developing countries).
• Kyoto Protocol (1997): Operationalized the UNFCCC by setting legally binding emission reduction targets for Annex I countries for the period 2008-2012. The US did not ratify it. Developing countries had no binding targets under Kyoto, reflecting CBDR.
• Paris Agreement (2015): (Though slightly beyond the core text, important for context) Aims to keep global temperature rise well below 2°C. It moves away from the strict Annex I/Non-Annex I division, requiring all countries to submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), but still upholds the principle of CBDR and respective capabilities.

5. Environmental Movements

• Diversity: Environmental movements range from local community initiatives to large international organizations.
• Focus: Can be specific (saving a particular forest/river) or broad (climate change awareness).
• Impact: Raise public awareness, lobby governments, conduct research, and sometimes engage in direct action. Examples include Greenpeace, WWF, and numerous local movements against dams, deforestation, mining etc., across the world.

6. Resource Geopolitics

• Definition: The study of how geography, politics, and economics interact concerning the control, distribution, and use of natural resources.
• Key Resources:
  • Oil: Historically the most critical resource shaping international relations. Control over oil supplies, production regions (especially West Asia/Middle East), and transport routes has been central to global power dynamics and conflicts.
  • Water: Increasingly vital. Shared river basins (transboundary rivers) are potential sources of cooperation or conflict (e.g., Nile, Jordan, Mekong, Indus). Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, is a growing security concern.
• Strategic Importance: Access to and control over vital resources are considered crucial elements of national power and security.

7. Indigenous Peoples and Their Rights

• Deep Connection: Indigenous communities worldwide often have deep traditional, cultural, and economic ties to specific territories and ecosystems.
• Vulnerability: They are often disproportionately affected by environmental degradation and displacement caused by development projects (dams, mining, logging).
• Demands: Recognition of their territorial rights, preservation of their cultural identity, consultation in development decisions affecting them, and protection of their traditional ecological knowledge.
• International Recognition: Growing international recognition of indigenous rights (e.g., UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007).

8. India's Stand on Environmental Issues

• Commitment: India has signed and ratified major environmental agreements like the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, CBD, and Paris Agreement.
• Emphasis on Equity and CBDR: Consistently argues for the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities, highlighting its low historical contribution and per capita emissions, and its significant development challenges (poverty eradication).
• National Actions: Has undertaken various measures like the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), promoting renewable energy (especially solar, through initiatives like the International Solar Alliance - ISA, co-founded by India), energy efficiency measures, and forest conservation efforts.
• Balancing Act: Seeks to balance its developmental needs with environmental protection responsibilities.

Conclusion

Environmental issues and resource management are complex, multifaceted challenges interwoven with global politics, economics, and equity. International cooperation, though difficult, is indispensable. Understanding the historical context, key principles like CBDR, and the specific geopolitics of resources is vital for navigating contemporary world affairs.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) for Practice:

1. The report "Limits to Growth" (1972), which highlighted resource depletion concerns, was published by:
   a) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
   b) World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
   c) The Club of Rome
   d) Greenpeace

2. The concept of 'Sustainable Development' was popularized by which report?
   a) Agenda 21
   b) Brundtland Report ("Our Common Future")
   c) Kyoto Protocol
   d) Montreal Protocol

3. The principle of 'Common But Differentiated Responsibilities' (CBDR) was formally acknowledged in which international agreement?
   a) Antarctic Treaty (1959)
   b) Montreal Protocol (1987)
   c) UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992)
   d) UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982)

4. Which of the following is NOT typically considered part of the 'Global Commons'?
   a) Earth's Atmosphere
   b) Antarctica
   c) National Parks within a country
   d) Outer Space

5. The Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 resulted in which key document outlining a plan for sustainable development?
   a) Kyoto Protocol
   b) Agenda 21
   c) Montreal Protocol
   d) Brundtland Report

6. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) primarily aimed to:
   a) Ban the use of CFCs to protect the ozone layer.
   b) Establish rules for managing the high seas.
   c) Set binding emission reduction targets for industrialized (Annex I) countries.
   d) Provide funding for biodiversity conservation in developing countries.

7. Resource Geopolitics primarily focuses on the political implications of the distribution and control of resources like:
   a) Information Technology and Software
   b) Oil and Water
   c) Cultural Heritage Sites
   d) Skilled Labour Migration

8. The main argument put forward by developing countries (Global South) in climate negotiations centres around:
   a) The immediate need for global carbon taxes.
   b) Historical responsibility of developed nations and the right to development.
   c) The greater efficiency of their industries compared to the North.
   d) Denying the existence of climate change.

9. Indigenous peoples often demand recognition primarily concerning their:
   a) Right to vote in national elections.
   b) Rights related to their traditional territories and resources.
   c) Access to international financial markets.
   d) Representation in the UN Security Council.

10. India's stance on global environmental issues strongly advocates for:
    a) Equal emission reduction targets for all countries immediately.
    b) The principles of equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
    c) Withdrawing from all international environmental treaties.
    d) Prioritizing economic growth completely over environmental concerns.

Answer Key:

1. c) The Club of Rome
2. b) Brundtland Report ("Our Common Future")
3. c) UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992)
4. c) National Parks within a country
5. b) Agenda 21
6. c) Set binding emission reduction targets for industrialized (Annex I) countries.
7. b) Oil and Water
8. b) Historical responsibility of developed nations and the right to development.
9. b) Rights related to their traditional territories and resources.
10. b) The principles of equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).

Study these notes thoroughly. Focus on the definitions, the timeline of events, the core arguments of the North-South divide, and India's position. Good luck with your preparation!