class 12 notes

Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 (The demographic structure of the indian society) – Indian Society Book

Philoid

Philoid

— 8 min read

Indian Society
Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 2: 'The Demographic Structure of the Indian Society'. This is a crucial chapter, not just for your board exams but also for understanding the very fabric of India and for various competitive government exams where Indian society and its dynamics are often tested. Demography, the study of population, provides vital clues about our past, present, and future.

Chapter 2: The Demographic Structure of the Indian Society - Detailed Notes

1. What is Demography?

  • Demography is the systematic and statistical study of human populations.
  • It studies trends and processes associated with population including:
    • Changes in population size (growth or decline).
    • Patterns of births, deaths, and migration.
    • The structure and composition of the population (e.g., age, sex distribution).
  • Types of Demography:
    • Formal Demography: Primarily quantitative, focusing on measuring and analysing population changes (how many people, where, changes over time). It uses mathematical methods.
    • Social Demography: Focuses on the social, economic, or political aspects of populations. It investigates the causes and consequences of population changes (e.g., why fertility declines, impact of sex ratio imbalance). Sociology is more aligned with Social Demography.
  • Importance: Demography is vital for planning and policy-making by governments (e.g., for health, education, employment, food security) and for economic development.

2. Theories of Population Growth

  • a) The Malthusian Theory:

    • Proposed by Thomas Robert Malthus (English political economist).
    • Core Idea: Population tends to grow at a much faster rate (geometrically, like 2, 4, 8, 16) than the means of human subsistence, especially food production (which grows arithmetically, like 2, 4, 6, 8).
    • Outcome: Population growth will inevitably outstrip food supply, leading to poverty, scarcity, and hardship.
    • Checks on Population: Malthus proposed two types of checks:
      • Positive Checks: Natural calamities, famines, epidemics, wars – ways nature restores balance by increasing the death rate.
      • Preventive Checks: Man-made measures to reduce the birth rate, like delaying marriage or practicing abstinence ('moral restraint'). Malthus favoured these.
    • Criticism:
      • Didn't fully anticipate the transformative impact of technology on agricultural production (food supply grew faster than he predicted).
      • Economic growth has often surpassed population growth in developed nations.
      • Poverty and inequality are often due to unequal distribution of resources, not just population size.
      • Did not foresee the widespread adoption of modern contraception.

  • b) The Theory of Demographic Transition:

    • Based on the actual experience of population changes in Western Europe.
    • Suggests that population growth is linked to overall economic development and that societies move through predictable stages of population change.
    • Stages:
      • Stage 1: High Stationary: High birth rate (BR) and high death rate (DR). Population growth is slow or stable. Typical of pre-industrial, agrarian societies. (India was largely in this stage before the 20th century).
      • Stage 2: Early Expanding: Death rate begins to fall rapidly (due to better health, sanitation, food supply), but the birth rate remains high. This leads to a population explosion. (Many developing countries, including India for a significant period post-independence, experienced this).
      • Stage 3: Late Expanding: Death rate continues to fall but more slowly. Crucially, the birth rate also starts to decline significantly (due to increased education, urbanization, changing social norms, access to contraception). Population growth continues but slows down. (India is generally considered to be in this stage now).
      • Stage 4: Low Stationary: Both birth rate and death rate are low. Population growth is minimal, zero, or even negative. Typical of developed, industrialized societies.
      • (Sometimes a Stage 5 is discussed where BR falls below DR, leading to population decline).
    • Criticism: The sequence and timing may not be the same for all countries, especially developing nations influenced by global factors.

3. Common Concepts and Indicators in Demography

  • Birth Rate (Crude Birth Rate - CBR): Number of live births per 1000 population in a given year.
  • Death Rate (Crude Death Rate - CDR): Number of deaths per 1000 population in a given year.
  • Rate of Natural Increase: Difference between the Birth Rate and the Death Rate. (If migration is significant, the 'Growth Rate' includes net migration).
  • Fertility Rate (Total Fertility Rate - TFR): Average number of live births a woman would have if she were to live through her entire child-bearing years (typically 15-49) and bear children at the current age-specific fertility rates.
  • Replacement Level: The TFR at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next, without migration. Usually considered to be around 2.1 children per woman (slightly above 2 to account for mortality before reproductive age).
  • Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of deaths of infants (under one year of age) per 1000 live births in a given year. A key indicator of healthcare quality and overall development.
  • Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): Number of maternal deaths (due to complications from pregnancy or childbirth) per 100,000 live births in a given year. Another critical health indicator.
  • Life Expectancy: Average number of years a newborn infant is expected to live if current mortality patterns continue.
  • Sex Ratio: Number of females per 1000 males in a given population. Crucial for social balance.
  • Age Structure: The distribution of the population across different age groups (e.g., 0-14 years, 15-59 years, 60+ years).
  • Dependency Ratio: The ratio of the 'dependent' population (children below 15 and elderly above 60 or 64) to the 'working-age' population (15-59 or 15-64 years). A high dependency ratio can strain the working population. A low dependency ratio can create a 'demographic dividend'.

4. Size and Growth of India's Population

  • India is the second-most populous country (soon likely to be the first).
  • Population growth was slow before 1921 (Year of the Great Divide - death rates started declining).
  • Post-independence (especially after 1951), rapid population growth occurred due to a sharp decline in death rates (better public health, disease control, food distribution) while birth rates remained high (Stage 2 of demographic transition).
  • The rate of population growth has been declining since the 1980s/90s, but the absolute number added each year remains large due to the large base population.
  • TFR has significantly declined, nearing replacement levels in many states, but regional variations exist.

5. Age Structure of the Indian Population

  • India has a very young population – a large proportion belongs to the younger age groups.
  • The working-age population (15-59 years) is substantial and growing – this creates the potential for a Demographic Dividend.
  • Demographic Dividend: The potential economic growth that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64) is larger than the non-working-age share of the population (14 and younger, and 65 and older).
  • Caveat: This dividend is potential, not guaranteed. It requires investment in education, health, and crucially, generation of sufficient employment opportunities for the large working-age population. Otherwise, it can become a 'demographic liability'.
  • The proportion of the elderly population is also increasing, posing challenges for healthcare and social security.

6. The Declining Sex Ratio in India

  • Historically, India's sex ratio has been skewed against females.
  • While overall sex ratio has shown marginal improvement in recent censuses, the Child Sex Ratio (CSR) (0-6 years age group) has shown a sharp decline, which is alarming.
  • Reasons for Declining Sex Ratio (especially CSR):
    • Strong socio-cultural preference for sons (patrilineal inheritance, old age security beliefs, dowry system).
    • Misuse of modern diagnostic technologies (ultrasound) for sex-selective abortion (female foeticide).
    • Neglect of girl children (leading to higher mortality).
  • Consequences: Marriage squeeze (shortage of women), potential increase in violence against women, trafficking.
  • Government Initiatives: Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 1994 (amended 2003) to ban sex determination; schemes like 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao'.

7. Literacy

  • Literacy is a key indicator of development and social progress.
  • Definition (Census): Ability to read and write with understanding in any language for persons aged 7 and above.
  • Literacy rates have increased significantly since independence.
  • However, challenges remain:
    • Gender Gap: Female literacy still lags behind male literacy, though the gap is narrowing.
    • Regional Variations: Significant disparities between states (e.g., Kerala vs. Bihar).
    • Social Group Variations: Lower literacy among SCs, STs compared to the general population.
    • Rural-Urban Gap: Urban areas generally have higher literacy rates.

8. Rural-Urban Differences

  • A vast majority of India's population still lives in rural areas, although the proportion is declining.
  • Urbanization: The process of growth in the urban population and the extent of urban areas is increasing rapidly.
  • Migration: A key driver of urbanization. People move from rural to urban areas primarily seeking better employment opportunities and livelihoods (push and pull factors).
  • Demographic Indicators: Significant differences often exist between rural and urban areas in terms of fertility rates, death rates, literacy levels, and access to healthcare. Urban areas generally fare better, but also face issues like overcrowding, slums, and pressure on infrastructure.

9. Population Policy of India

  • India was one of the first countries to announce a National Family Planning Programme (1952).
  • Early focus was largely on birth control methods.
  • The coercive sterilization campaign during the National Emergency (1975-77) led to a backlash and shift in policy approach.
  • National Population Policy (NPP) 2000:
    • Adopted a broader, more holistic approach.
    • Immediate Objective: Address unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and personnel.
    • Medium-Term Objective: Bring TFR to replacement levels (2.1) by 2010 (this target was missed).
    • Long-Term Objective: Achieve a stable population by 2045 (later revised).
    • Emphasizes voluntary and informed choice, target-free approach, women's empowerment, child survival, and meeting reproductive health needs.
    • Focuses on inter-sectoral coordination (health, education, etc.).

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

  1. Which theory suggests that population growth naturally outstrips the growth in food supply?
    a) Theory of Demographic Transition
    b) Malthusian Theory
    c) Optimum Population Theory
    d) Social Capillarity Theory

  2. According to the Theory of Demographic Transition, during which stage does the population experience the most rapid growth (population explosion)?
    a) Stage 1 (High Stationary)
    b) Stage 2 (Early Expanding)
    c) Stage 3 (Late Expanding)
    d) Stage 4 (Low Stationary)

  3. The 'Replacement Level' fertility (TFR) required for a population to replace itself is generally considered to be around:
    a) 1.5 children per woman
    b) 2.1 children per woman
    c) 2.8 children per woman
    d) 3.0 children per woman

  4. What does the 'Dependency Ratio' measure?
    a) The ratio of females to males in the population.
    b) The ratio of the urban population to the rural population.
    c) The ratio of the non-working age population (children and elderly) to the working-age population.
    d) The ratio of literate individuals to illiterate individuals.

  5. The potential economic benefit arising from a large share of the working-age population is known as:
    a) Population Explosion
    b) Demographic Dividend
    c) Age Structure Transition
    d) Dependency Burden

  6. The sharp decline in the Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years) in India is primarily attributed to:
    a) Higher infant mortality among girls due to natural causes.

    • b) Sex-selective abortion and neglect of girl children.*
      c) Increased migration of families with male children.
      d) Errors in census data collection.

  7. The National Population Policy (NPP) of India, adopted in 2000, emphasizes:
    a) Coercive sterilization targets.
    b) A focus solely on male contraception.
    c) Voluntary and informed choice, and a target-free approach.
    d) Achieving population stability primarily through migration control.

  8. Which of the following is NOT a primary reason for the decline in death rates in India post-independence?
    a) Control of epidemics like cholera and plague.
    b) Improved sanitation and public health measures.
    c) Expansion of medical facilities.
    d) A significant increase in the birth rate.

  9. The term 'Sex Ratio' in the Indian context usually refers to:
    a) Number of males per 1000 females.
    b) Number of females per 1000 males.
    c) Number of births per 1000 deaths.
    d) Ratio of married men to married women.

  10. The 'Year of the Great Divide' in India's demographic history, after which mortality rates began a definitive decline, is:
    a) 1901
    b) 1921
    c) 1947
    d) 1951

Answer Key for MCQs:

  1. b) Malthusian Theory
  2. b) Stage 2 (Early Expanding)
  3. b) 2.1 children per woman
  4. c) The ratio of the non-working age population (children and elderly) to the working-age population.
  5. b) Demographic Dividend
  6. b) Sex-selective abortion and neglect of girl children.
  7. c) Voluntary and informed choice, and a target-free approach.
  8. d) A significant increase in the birth rate. (Increased birth rate contributes to population growth, not decline in death rate).
  9. b) Number of females per 1000 males.
  10. b) 1921

Remember to connect these demographic concepts and trends to broader social structures like caste, class, religion, and region, as they often influence demographic outcomes. Good luck with your preparation!

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