Class 9 Social Science Notes Chapter 5 (Pastoralists in the modern world) – India and the Contemporary World-I Book

Alright class, let's focus on Chapter 5, 'Pastoralists in the Modern World'. This chapter is crucial for understanding how different communities adapt to change, especially under colonial rule, and these themes often appear in government exams. Pay close attention to the specific communities, colonial policies, and their impacts.

Chapter 5: Pastoralists in the Modern World - Detailed Notes

1. Introduction: What is Pastoral Nomadism?

• Definition: Pastoralism is a way of life centred around raising livestock (like cattle, sheep, goats, camels). Pastoral Nomads are people who do not live continuously in the same place but move with their herds from one place to another in search of pasture (grazing land) and water.
• Importance: This movement is often seasonal and crucial for the survival of their animals and, consequently, their own livelihood. They rely heavily on animal products (milk, meat, wool, hides).
• Relationship with Agriculture: Often, pastoralists have a symbiotic relationship with settled agricultural communities, exchanging animal products or manure for grain and other goods.

2. Pastoral Nomads and their Movements in India

• A. In the Mountains:

  • Gujjars Bakarwals (Jammu & Kashmir):
    • Herders of goats and sheep.
    • Seasonal Migration (Transhumance): Winter - low hills of the Siwalik range. Summer - move up to high mountain meadows (bugyals) above the tree line when snow melts (around April). Return journey begins in September.
  • Gaddi Shepherds (Himachal Pradesh):
    • Similar seasonal cycle to Gujjars Bakarwals.
    • Spend winter in Siwalik foothills, summer in Lahul and Spiti.
  • Bhotiyas, Sherpas, Kinnauris (Other Himalayan regions): Also practiced similar cyclical movements based on seasonal availability of pastures.

• B. On the Plateaus, Plains, and Deserts:

  • Dhangars (Maharashtra):
    • Important shepherd community. Population estimated at 467,000 in the early 20th century.
    • Region: Central plateau of Maharashtra (semi-arid, poor soil, low rainfall).
    • Livelihood: Primarily sheep herding, weaving blankets, some buffalo herding. Also grew bajra in the monsoon.
    • Movement: Stayed on the central plateau during monsoon (pastures available). After October (harvest), moved west towards the Konkan region.
    • Relationship with Konkani Peasants: Welcomed by Konkani peasants. Dhangar flocks manured the fields (providing fertilizer) and fed on the stubble after harvest. In return, Dhangars received supplies of rice and grain to take back to the plateau. They left Konkan before the monsoon rains returned.
  • Gollas, Kurumas, Kurubas (Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh):
    • Gollas herded cattle.
    • Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats, sold woven blankets.
    • Livelihood: Lived near woods, cultivated small patches, engaged in petty trades alongside herding.
    • Movement: Alternation between monsoon and dry seasons dictated their movement between coastal tracts (dry season) and dry central plateau (monsoon).
  • Raikas (Rajasthan):
    • Lived in the deserts of Rajasthan. Rainfall was scarce and uncertain.
    • Livelihood: Combined cultivation with pastoralism.
    • Herd: One group (Maru Raikas) herded camels; another group reared sheep and goats.
    • Movement: During monsoons, stayed in home villages (Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner) where pasture was available. By October, when grazing grounds dried, they moved out in search of pasture and water, returning again at the next monsoon.

3. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life: Major Impacts

The colonial government viewed pastoral nomads with suspicion. They wanted predictable, settled populations that were easier to control and tax. Their policies drastically affected pastoral life:

• A. Reduction of Grazing Lands (Wasteland Rules):

  • Colonial officials saw all uncultivated land as "waste" and unproductive. They wanted to bring it under cultivation to increase land revenue and produce commercial crops (jute, cotton, wheat).
  • Wasteland Rules (mid-19th century onwards): Vast areas of grazing land were taken over, given to select individuals for cultivation, or declared forests.
  • Impact: Drastic shrinkage of available pastures for pastoralists.

• B. Forest Acts:

  • Various Forest Acts were enacted (e.g., Indian Forest Act of 1878). Forests were classified as 'Reserved' (no public entry) and 'Protected' (some customary grazing rights allowed but severely restricted).
  • Impact: Pastoralists were prevented from entering many forests that had traditionally provided valuable forage, especially during dry seasons. They needed permits for entry, timing was restricted, and the number of days they could spend was limited. This led to harassment and fines.

• C. Criminal Tribes Act (1871):

  • The British government was suspicious of nomadic groups. They were seen as inherently criminal and untrustworthy.
  • Impact: Many communities of pastoralists (and other traders, craftspeople) were classified as 'Criminal Tribes'. They were forced to live in notified village settlements, their movements were restricted without permits, and they faced constant police surveillance. This stigmatized entire communities.

• D. Grazing Tax:

  • To extract more revenue, the colonial government imposed taxes on land, canal water, salt, trade goods, and even animals.
  • Grazing Tax (introduced mid-19th century): Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed. The right to collect tax was often auctioned out to contractors.
  • Impact: Contractors tried to extract as much money as possible, leading to high taxes and harassment. Pastoralists faced a heavy financial burden. Example: Tax per head of cattle went up rapidly.

4. How Pastoralists Coped with these Changes

Pastoral communities did not passively accept these changes. They adapted in various ways:

• Reduced Herd Size: Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds due to lack of pasture.
• Changed Movement Patterns: Discovered new pastures when old ones were closed off. For example, after the partition of India in 1947, Raikas from Sindh could no longer graze near the Indus; they had to find new places like Haryana.
• Combined Pastoralism with Other Activities: Richer pastoralists started buying land and settling down, combining cultivation with pastoralism. Poorer ones borrowed money, sometimes losing their cattle and becoming labourers.
• Lobbied for Rights: In later years, pastoralists began demanding rights to enter traditional grazing grounds, relaxation of rules, and reduction in taxes.

5. Pastoralism in Africa: The Case of the Maasai

• Location: East Africa (Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania).

• Traditional Life: Primarily cattle herders (also sheep, goats, donkeys). Lived across a vast area from north Kenya to steppes of northern Tanzania. Society structured by age (Elders made decisions, Warriors defended the community). Wealth measured by cattle.

• Colonial Impact ("Scramble for Africa" - late 19th Century):

  • Loss of Land: Maasailand was cut in half by an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika (later Tanzania). The best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement (e.g., fertile highlands in Kenya) and game reserves (e.g., Serengeti National Park, Maasai Mara).
  • Confinement: Maasai were pushed into a small, arid reserve area in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They lost about 60% of their pre-colonial lands.
  • Restricted Movement: Confined to reserves, prevented from moving freely in search of pasture. Prohibited from entering white settlement areas or markets without special permits. Traditional raiding activities were discouraged.
  • Impact of Droughts: Restrictions on movement made them highly vulnerable during droughts. When pastures in their reserve area failed, they couldn't move elsewhere. Catastrophic cattle losses occurred during severe droughts (e.g., 1930, 1933-34).
  • Changes in Social Structure: Traditional authority patterns were disrupted. British appointed chiefs from specific sub-groups, undermining the authority of elders and warriors.

• Coping Mechanisms in Maasailand:

  • Similar adaptations to Indian pastoralists (adjusting routes, some settling).
  • Growing Social Differentiation: A distinction emerged between wealthy ('chiefs' appointed by colonialists, who accumulated wealth, survived droughts better, engaged in trade) and poor pastoralists (lost cattle, became labourers).
  • Young men found limited opportunities in warrior roles and sought work elsewhere.

6. Conclusion

• Modernisation and colonial policies profoundly impacted pastoral communities worldwide.
• Policies aimed at controlling land, resources, and people led to the shrinkage of pastures, restricted movement, increased economic hardship, and social disruption for pastoralists.
• Despite these challenges, pastoral communities demonstrated resilience, adapting their lifestyles and continuing their practices, often in modified forms. Pastoralism remains an important economic activity and way of life in many parts of the world today.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) for Exam Practice:

1. The Gujjars Bakarwals are primarily associated with which region of India?
   (a) Rajasthan
   (b) Maharashtra
   (c) Jammu & Kashmir
   (d) Himachal Pradesh

2. What is the term for the seasonal movement of pastoralists with their herds, like the Gaddis moving between low hills in winter and high meadows in summer?
   (a) Cultivation
   (b) Transhumance
   (c) Barter system
   (d) Sedentarisation

3. The Dhangar community of Maharashtra had a symbiotic relationship with the peasants of which region?
   (a) Konkan
   (b) Vidarbha
   (c) Marathwada
   (d) Khandesh

4. Which colonial act classified many nomadic communities as inherently criminal and restricted their movement?
   (a) Forest Act
   (b) Wasteland Rules
   (c) Grazing Tax Act
   (d) Criminal Tribes Act

5. The primary reason colonial rulers disliked pastoral nomads was:
   (a) They did not practice settled agriculture.
   (b) They were difficult to control and tax.
   (c) They competed with wildlife for resources.
   (d) All of the above.

6. The Maasai pastoral community traditionally inhabited areas that are now part of which two modern African countries?
   (a) Ethiopia and Sudan
   (b) Kenya and Tanzania
   (c) Uganda and Rwanda
   (d) South Africa and Zimbabwe

7. What was a major consequence of the colonial division and appropriation of Maasailand?
   (a) Maasai gained more political power.
   (b) They lost a significant portion of their traditional grazing lands.
   (c) Their cattle herds increased dramatically.
   (d) They were encouraged to move freely across borders.

8. Colonial Forest Acts in India primarily aimed to:
   (a) Promote traditional grazing rights.
   (b) Conserve forests for commercial timber exploitation and limit pastoral access.
   (c) Encourage pastoralists to settle within forest areas.
   (d) Provide employment to pastoralists as forest guards.

9. Which group among the Raikas of Rajasthan primarily herded camels?
   (a) Gaddi Raikas
   (b) Dhangar Raikas
   (c) Maru Raikas
   (d) Gollas Raikas

10. How did pastoralists in India cope with the restrictions imposed by colonial rule?
    (a) By reducing their herd size and changing migration routes.
    (b) By combining pastoralism with cultivation or other labour.
    (c) By demanding their traditional rights.
    (d) All of the above.

Answer Key:

1. (c)
2. (b)
3. (a)
4. (d)
5. (b) (While (a) is true, (b) represents the core administrative reason for dislike)
6. (b)
7. (b)
8. (b)
9. (c)
10. (d)

Study these notes carefully. Understand the reasons behind the colonial policies and the consequences for the pastoralists. Good luck with your preparation!