Class 7 Social Science Notes Chapter 10 (Eighteenth-Century Political Formations) – Out Pasts - II Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 10: 'Eighteenth-Century Political Formations'. This period is crucial as it marks the decline of the mighty Mughal Empire and the simultaneous rise of various regional powers, setting the stage for later developments, including the expansion of British influence. Pay close attention, as understanding this transition is vital.

Chapter 10: Eighteenth-Century Political Formations - Detailed Notes

I. The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

• Context: The Mughal Empire faced a severe crisis by the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707 is often seen as a significant turning point.
• Factors Contributing to Decline:
  • Aurangzeb's Policies: His long, resource-draining wars in the Deccan weakened the military and financial stability of the empire. His religious policies also caused discontent among various groups.
  • Weak Successors (Later Mughals): After Aurangzeb, a series of weak, inefficient, and often short-lived emperors ascended the throne (e.g., Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, Farrukh Siyar, Muhammad Shah 'Rangila'). They lacked the political acumen and military strength of their predecessors.
  • Wars of Succession: Frequent and bloody wars of succession further destabilized the empire and depleted its resources.
  • Nobility Challenges: Powerful nobles (Mansabdars) controlling large territories (Jagirs) became increasingly independent. Governors (subadars) and local chieftains (zamindars) consolidated their authority. Competition among different factions of nobles (Iranis, Turanis, Hindustanis) weakened the central administration.
  • Economic & Administrative Problems: The jagirdari system faced a crisis, with too many claimants (mansabdars) for a limited number of jagirs. This led to exploitation of the peasantry and decreased agricultural output. Revenue collection became difficult.
  • Peasant and Zamindar Rebellions: Oppressive taxation and weakening central authority led to numerous peasant and zamindar rebellions in different parts of northern and western India.
  • External Invasions:
    • Nadir Shah (Ruler of Iran): Invaded in 1739, sacked Delhi, massacred its inhabitants, and carried away immense wealth, including the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. This exposed the military weakness of the Mughal Empire.
    • Ahmad Shah Abdali (Ruler of Afghanistan): Invaded North India multiple times between 1748 and 1761. His victory at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against the Marathas was significant.
• Result: The Mughal Empire significantly shrank, and emperors became puppets, first in the hands of powerful nobles and later under the control of Marathas and the British. Their authority became largely symbolic, confined mainly to the area around Delhi.

II. Emergence of New States

As Mughal authority declined, three broad categories of states emerged:

A. Old Mughal Provinces (Successor States): These were provinces founded by powerful Mughal nobles who carved out independent states but often maintained nominal allegiance to the Mughal Emperor.

• Awadh:

  • Founder: Sa'adat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (appointed Subadar in 1722).
  • Consolidation: Held the combined offices of subadari (political), diwani (financial), and faujdari (military). Reduced Mughal influence by controlling appointments and reducing the number of jagirdars. Seized fertile lands from Afghans of Rohilkhand.
  • Revenue System: Relied on local bankers and mahajans for loans. Introduced the ijaradari system (revenue farming), selling the right to collect tax to the highest bidders, which often led to pressure on peasants.
  • Successor: Safdar Jang (nephew and son-in-law). Lucknow became a major cultural centre.

• Bengal:

  • Founder: Murshid Quli Khan (appointed as naib, deputy to the governor, later became governor).
  • Consolidation: Transferred Mughal jagirdars to Orissa to reduce their influence in Bengal. Ordered a major reassessment of revenues. Collected revenue strictly in cash, forcing zamindars to borrow from bankers/moneylenders. Transferred the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.
  • Economic Prosperity: Encouraged agriculture and trade, leading to the rise of wealthy merchant and banking families like that of Jagat Seth.
  • Successors: Shuja-ud-din, Alivardi Khan. Maintained autonomy, paying only tribute to the Mughal Emperor. Resisted the English East India Company's attempts to extend privileges.

• Hyderabad:

  • Founder: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (Qilich Khan), a powerful noble at the Mughal court.
  • Consolidation: Appointed governor of the Deccan; took advantage of turmoil to consolidate power. Brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India. Appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs independently.
  • Autonomy: Acted independently of Delhi, although still formally recognizing Mughal sovereignty. Faced competition from the Marathas in the west and independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) in the south.

• Common Features of Successor States:

  • Reduced Mughal influence without formally severing ties initially.
  • Established efficient administrative systems based on Mughal patterns but adapted locally.
  • Reformed revenue systems, often relying on ijaradari or stricter collection methods.
  • Saw the rise of new influential groups like bankers and merchants.

B. Watan Jagirs (Rajputs):

• Concept: Watan Jagirs were hereditary land grants given by Mughals to Rajput rulers in recognition of their ancestral domains, over which they enjoyed considerable autonomy.
• 18th Century: Many Rajput rulers, particularly of Amber (Jaipur) and Jodhpur, had served Mughals with distinction. In the 18th century, they tried to extend their control over adjacent imperial territories.
  • Ajit Singh (Jodhpur): Involved in Mughal court politics.
  • Sawai Raja Jai Singh (Amber/Jaipur): A remarkable ruler. Founded the city of Jaipur (known for its town planning). Was a great astronomer; built five astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantars) in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi. Appointed governor of Malwa and Agra. Tried to expand his watan.
• Limitations: Their expansionist ambitions were checked by the rise of other powers, especially the Marathas, who started raiding Rajput territories and demanding tribute.

C. Independent Kingdoms (Established after rebellion against Mughals):

• The Sikhs:
  • Transformation: Guru Gobind Singh (10th Guru) instituted the Khalsa in 1699, creating a disciplined community of warrior-saints. Inspired Sikhs to fight Mughal authority.
  • Banda Bahadur: After Guru Gobind Singh's death (1708), Banda Bahadur led a fierce revolt against the Mughals (1709-1716), establishing administration between Sutlej and Yamuna, striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh. Captured and executed in 1716.
  • Organization (Post-Banda): Sikhs organized themselves into bands called jathas, and later into larger units called misls (usually 12 major ones). Their combined forces were known as the dal khalsa (grand army), meeting at Amritsar during Baisakhi and Diwali to take collective decisions (gurmatas).
  • Rakhi System: Offered protection (rakhi) to cultivators upon payment of 20% of the produce. This helped extend political control.
  • Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Late 18th/Early 19th Century): United the misls and established a powerful Sikh kingdom with its capital at Lahore (captured 1799). Known for his strong army and administration. His kingdom included Punjab and parts of present-day Afghanistan and Kashmir.
• The Marathas:
  • Foundation: Rose to prominence under Shivaji (17th century), challenging Mughal rule.
  • Expansion (18th Century): Under the Peshwas (Prime Ministers, based in Pune), particularly Baji Rao I (1720-1740), the Marathas embarked on vigorous expansion.
  • Military Strategy: Developed effective guerrilla warfare tactics. Raided Mughal territories extensively.
  • Revenue Demands: Levied two major taxes:
    • Chauth: 1/4th of the land revenue, claimed from territories nominally under Mughal rule as a tribute for protection/not raiding.
    • Sardeshmukhi: Additional 9-10% levy on land revenue, claimed based on hereditary rights as the chief headmen (sardeshmukh) of the Deccan.
  • Territorial Expansion: Expanded rapidly between 1720s and 1761. Overran Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand. Raided Delhi (1737). Gained control over vast territories across North India, Rajasthan, Punjab, Orissa, Bengal, and the South. Became the most formidable power challenging the Mughals.
  • Administration: Developed an effective administrative system but expansion brought huge resources at the cost of antagonizing other rulers.
  • Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali. This checked their northward expansion significantly but did not destroy Maratha power.
  • Post-Panipat: Maratha power fragmented among different chiefs (Sardars) belonging to dynasties such as Scindia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gaekwad (Baroda), and Bhonsle (Nagpur), under the nominal leadership of the Peshwa.
• The Jats:
  • Consolidation: Prosperous agriculturalists around Delhi, Mathura, and Agra. Consolidated power during the late 17th and 18th centuries.
  • Leaders: Churaman, Badan Singh.
  • Suraj Mal (1756-1763): The most famous Jat ruler. Established the kingdom of Bharatpur as a strong state. Known for his political wisdom and military skills. Built the strong Lohagarh fort (Bharatpur). Controlled important trading centres in the region. Briefly captured Delhi (1761) after the Battle of Panipat. His domain included parts of modern Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh.

III. Conclusion

The 18th century witnessed the disintegration of the centralized Mughal Empire and the rise of diverse regional political formations. These included successor states trying to maintain Mughal administrative structures, Rajput watan jagirs asserting greater independence, and new states forged through rebellion like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats. This political fragmentation and internal conflict created a power vacuum that European trading companies, particularly the British East India Company, would eventually exploit to establish their own dominance.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Who founded the independent state of Hyderabad in the 18th century?
   a) Sa'adat Khan
   b) Murshid Quli Khan
   c) Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah
   d) Alivardi Khan

2. The system of revenue farming introduced in Awadh and Bengal was known as:
   a) Jagirdari
   b) Mansabdari
   c) Ijaradari
   d) Zabt

3. Nadir Shah, the ruler of Iran, invaded Delhi in the year:
   a) 1707
   b) 1739
   c) 1761
   d) 1722

4. The Sikh community was organized into bands called jathas, which later combined into larger groups known as:
   a) Khalsa
   b) Gurmatas
   c) Misls
   d) Dal Khalsa

5. The two taxes levied by the Marathas on territories outside their direct rule were:
   a) Jizya and Zakat
   b) Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
   c) Kharaj and Ushur
   d) Rakhi and Jagir

6. Sawai Raja Jai Singh, known for founding Jaipur and building astronomical observatories, was the ruler of:
   a) Jodhpur
   b) Mewar
   c) Amber
   d) Bikaner

7. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was fought between:
   a) Mughals and Marathas
   b) Marathas and Nadir Shah
   c) Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali
   d) Mughals and Sikhs

8. Which Jat ruler is known for establishing the strong kingdom of Bharatpur and building the Lohagarh fort?
   a) Churaman
   b) Badan Singh
   c) Suraj Mal
   d) Ajit Singh

9. Which of the following was NOT a major factor contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century?
   a) Weak successors after Aurangzeb
   b) The rise of the British East India Company's military power
   c) Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali
   d) Revolts by zamindars and peasants

10. Murshid Quli Khan shifted the capital of Bengal from Dhaka to:
    a) Kolkata
    b) Patna
    c) Murshidabad
    d) Chittagong

Answer Key:

1. (c)
2. (c)
3. (b)
4. (c)
5. (b)
6. (c)
7. (c)
8. (c)
9. (b) - While the EIC was rising, its direct military challenge leading to Mughal decline was more prominent later; the other factors were primary internal/external causes during the early-mid 18th century decline itself.
10. (c)

Study these notes carefully. Remember the key figures, the new states formed, the reasons for Mughal decline, and important terms like Chauth, Sardeshmukhi, Ijaradari, Misls, Watan Jagir. This foundation will be very helpful for your exams. Good luck!