Class 7 Social Science Notes Chapter 2 (New Kings And Kingdoms) – Out Pasts - II Book

Alright class, let's delve into Chapter 2, 'New Kings And Kingdoms,' from your 'Our Pasts - II' textbook. This period, roughly between the 7th and 12th centuries, witnessed significant political changes across the Indian subcontinent. Understanding these developments is crucial, not just for your exams, but also for grasping the foundations of medieval Indian history.

Detailed Notes: New Kings And Kingdoms (NCERT Class 7 History - Chapter 2)

1. The Emergence of New Dynasties (Post-7th Century)

• Rise of Subordinates: By the 7th century, many large landlords and warrior chiefs, known as samanthas, gained prominence in different regions. Kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates.
• Duties of Samanthas: They were expected to bring gifts for their kings, be present at their courts, and provide military support.
• Gaining Independence: As samanthas gained power and wealth, they often asserted their independence.
  • They adopted high-sounding titles like maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region).
  • Sometimes, they performed rituals to declare themselves kshatriyas if they weren't by birth (e.g., the hiranya-garbha or golden womb ritual).
• Examples:
  • Rashtrakutas: Initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed the hiranya-garbha ritual.
  • Kadamba Mayurasharman (Karnataka) and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra (Rajasthan): Brahmanas who gave up traditional professions, took to arms, and established kingdoms.

2. Administration in the Kingdoms

• Royal Titles: Kings adopted grand titles like Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) to signify their power.
• Power Sharing: Despite titles, kings often shared power with:
  • Samanthas
  • Associations of peasants (called ur)
  • Traders (called nagaram)
  • Brahmanas
• Resource Mobilisation:
  • Resources were obtained from producers – peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans.
  • Taxes were collected, often referred to as 'rent' due to the king's claim of land ownership. Common taxes included vetti (forced labour) and kadamai (land revenue) - particularly mentioned in Chola inscriptions.
  • Revenue was also collected from traders.
• Use of Resources:
  • Financing the king's establishment (palace, officials).
  • Construction of temples and forts.
  • Funding wars (often fought for acquiring wealth, land, and trade routes).
• Recruitment:
  • Revenue collection officials were often recruited from influential families.
  • Positions frequently became hereditary.
  • This pattern was also seen in the army.

3. Prashastis and Land Grants

• Prashastis: These were special inscriptions, often composed by learned Brahmanas, detailing and praising the rulers.
  • They often contained exaggerated accounts of the king's achievements (valour, victories).
  • They provide insights into how rulers wished to be perceived.
  • Example: A Sanskrit prashasti found in Gwalior describes the exploits of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king.
• Land Grants (Brahmadeya): Kings often rewarded Brahmanas with grants of land.
  • These grants were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land.
  • The plates detailed the grant and often listed what was given with the land (resources, rights to collect taxes, etc.).
• Unusual Source: The Rajatarangini, a long Sanskrit poem composed by Kalhana in the 12th century, provides a history of the kings who ruled over Kashmir. It's notable because Kalhana used various sources and was often critical about rulers, unlike typical prashastis.

4. Warfare for Wealth

• Focus on Kanauj: The city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley was a prized area, leading to conflict among major dynasties.
• The Tripartite Struggle: For centuries, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj. This long-drawn conflict is known as the "tripartite struggle."
• Temple Raids: Rulers often demonstrated power by building large temples. When attacking other kingdoms, they frequently targeted these temples because they were repositories of immense wealth.
• Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan):
  • Ruled from 997 to 1030 CE.
  • Extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and the north-western part of the subcontinent.
  • Raided the subcontinent almost every year, primarily targeting wealthy temples.
  • Famous raid: Somnath temple in Gujarat (around 1025 CE).
  • Used the looted wealth to build a magnificent capital city at Ghazni.
  • Commissioned Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent, known as the Kitab-ul-Hind, an important historical source.
• Chahamanas (Chauhans):
  • Ruled the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
  • Attempted expansion, leading to conflicts with neighbours like the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
  • Most famous ruler: Prithviraj III (1168-1192).
  • Defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
  • Was defeated by Muhammad Ghori in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192).

5. A Closer Look: The Cholas (c. 9th - 13th Century)

• Rise to Power:
  • Emerged from a minor chiefly family (the Muttaraiyar) holding power in the Kaveri delta, subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram.
  • Vijayalaya, belonging to the ancient Chola family from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar around 850 CE.
  • He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for the goddess Nishumbhasudini there.
  • His successors expanded the empire, conquering the Pallava and Pandya territories.
  • Rajaraja I (ruled 985-1014 CE): Considered the most powerful Chola ruler. Expanded control, reorganized administration. Built the magnificent Rajarajeshvara Temple (Brihadeeswarar Temple) at Thanjavur.
  • Rajendra I (ruled 1014-1044 CE): Son of Rajaraja I. Continued expansionist policies, raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and countries of Southeast Asia. Developed a strong navy. Took the title Gangaikondachola ("the Chola who conquered the Ganga") and built a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture:
  • Chola temples (e.g., Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram) were architectural marvels and centres of life.
  • They were endowed with land by rulers and others.
  • The produce supported priests, artisans, musicians, dancers, etc., associated with the temple.
  • Temples became nuclei of settlements and hubs of economic, social, and cultural activity.
  • Chola bronze images are considered among the finest in the world.
• Agriculture and Irrigation:
  • The Kaveri River delta was highly fertile.
  • Significant developments in agriculture: large-scale cultivation, forest clearing, land levelling.
  • Advanced irrigation systems: wells, huge tanks for rainwater harvesting, canals, embankments. Required extensive planning and labour organization.
• Administration:
  • Settlements of peasants, known as ur, prospered with irrigation.
  • Groups of ur formed larger units called nadu.
  • The village council (ur) and the nadu performed administrative functions like dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
  • Rich peasants of the Vellala caste had significant control over nadu affairs under the central Chola government.
  • Kings granted titles like muvendavelan (a peasant serving three kings) and araiyar (chief) to important landowners.
  • Types of Land (from inscriptions):
    • vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
    • brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas.
    • shalabhoga: Land for the maintenance of a school.
    • devadana, tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.
    • pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.
  • Sabha: Assemblies of prominent Brahmana landholders in brahmadeya villages.
    • Functioned efficiently through committees (irrigation, gardens, temples, etc.).
    • Detailed records of their functioning found in inscriptions (e.g., Uttaramerur inscription, Tamil Nadu).
    • Eligibility criteria for membership were strict (land ownership, knowledge, age).
    • Members were chosen by a lottery system using palm-leaf tickets.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Who were the 'samanthas' in the context of early medieval India?
   a) Foreign traders
   b) Learned Brahmanas who composed prashastis
   c) Subordinate landlords or warrior chiefs
   d) Temple priests

2. The Rashtrakuta dynasty rose to power by overthrowing which earlier dynasty?
   a) Palas
   b) Pallavas
   c) Chalukyas of Karnataka
   d) Gurjara-Pratiharas

3. The 'tripartite struggle' involved which three major dynasties fighting for control over Kanauj?
   a) Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras
   b) Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas
   c) Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas
   d) Mauryas, Guptas, Kushanas

4. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni famously raided which temple in Gujarat multiple times?
   a) Rajarajeshvara Temple
   b) Jagannath Temple
   c) Somnath Temple
   d) Sun Temple, Konark

5. Who authored the 'Kitab-ul-Hind', an account of the Indian subcontinent commissioned by Mahmud of Ghazni?
   a) Kalhana
   b) Firdausi
   c) Al-Biruni
   d) Ibn Battuta

6. Which Chola ruler took the title 'Gangaikondachola' and built the city of Gangaikondacholapuram?
   a) Vijayalaya
   b) Rajaraja I
   c) Rajendra I
   d) Kulottunga I

7. In Chola administration, what was a 'nadu'?
   a) A settlement of peasants
   b) An assembly of Brahmana landholders
   c) A group of villages forming a larger administrative unit
   d) Land gifted to temples

8. The famous bronze images are particularly associated with which dynasty?
   a) Rashtrakutas
   b) Palas
   c) Gurjara-Pratiharas
   d) Cholas

9. What does the term 'brahmadeya' refer to in the context of this period?
   a) Tax collected from traders
   b) Land gifted to Brahmanas
   c) Forced labour
   d) A type of military rank

10. The Uttaramerur inscription provides detailed information about the functioning of which administrative body?
    a) The king's royal court
    b) The nagaram (traders' association)
    c) The ur (peasant settlement council)
    d) The sabha (assembly in Brahmana villages)

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. c) Subordinate landlords or warrior chiefs
2. c) Chalukyas of Karnataka
3. b) Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas
4. c) Somnath Temple
5. c) Al-Biruni
6. c) Rajendra I
7. c) A group of villages forming a larger administrative unit
8. d) Cholas
9. b) Land gifted to Brahmanas
10. d) The sabha (assembly in Brahmana villages)

Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Pay close attention to the terms in bold, the names of dynasties, key rulers, and administrative units. Understanding the Chola administration, in particular, is very important. Good luck with your preparation!