Class 7 Social Science Notes Chapter 4 (The Mughal Empire) – Out Pasts - II Book

Alright class, let's begin our detailed study of Chapter 4: The Mughal Empire. This is a crucial chapter, not just for understanding medieval Indian history, but also because many questions in government exams are drawn from this period. Pay close attention to the key figures, administrative systems, and timelines.

The Mughal Empire (c. 1526 - 1857 CE)

1. Introduction: Who were the Mughals?

• The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers.
  • From their mother's side: Descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler who dominated parts of China and Central Asia.
  • From their father's side: Successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.
• The Mughals did not like being called Mughal or Mongol because Genghis Khan's memory was associated with massacres. They were proud of their Timurid ancestry, partly because their great ancestor Timur had captured Delhi in 1398.
• They established a vast empire covering almost the entire Indian subcontinent, leaving a significant administrative, cultural, and architectural legacy.

2. Key Mughal Emperors and Military Campaigns:

• Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (1526-1530):

  • Founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
  • Initially ruled Ferghana; seized Kabul in 1504.
  • First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (the last Delhi Sultan). This marked the beginning of Mughal rule. Babur effectively used cannons and artillery.
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar and his Rajput allies.
  • Battle of Chanderi (1528): Defeated the Rajputs.
  • Established control over Agra and Delhi before his death.

• Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun (1530-1540 & 1555-1556):

  • Inherited a fragile empire. Faced threats from Sher Khan (later Sher Shah Suri) in the east and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
  • Battle of Chausa (1539) & Battle of Kanauj (1540): Defeated by Sher Shah Suri.
  • Lost his empire and fled to Persia (Iran), taking refuge in the Safavid court.
  • Recaptured Delhi in 1555 with Safavid help.
  • Died in 1556 after falling down the stairs of his library (Sher Mandal).

• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605):

  • Ascended the throne at age 13. His regent was Bairam Khan.
  • Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Defeated Hemu (Hindu general of the Suri dynasty), consolidating Mughal rule.
  • Military Campaigns: Expanded the empire significantly by conquering Malwa, Gondwana, Chittor, Ranthambhor, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Kashmir, Kabul, Qandahar, Berar, Khandesh, and parts of Ahmednagar.
  • Known for his administrative reforms (Mansabdari system, Zabt system) and liberal religious policies (Sulh-i-Kul).
  • Shifted capital to Fatehpur Sikri for a period.

• Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir (1605-1627):

  • Continued Akbar's policies and military campaigns.
  • Subjugated the Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh.
  • Less successful campaigns against Sikhs, Ahoms (in Assam), and Ahmednagar.
  • His wife, Nur Jahan (Mehrunnisa), wielded considerable influence in the court. She struck coins in her name.
  • Faced rebellion from his son, Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
  • Known for his love of art, culture, and justice (Chain of Justice).

• Shihabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan (1627-1658):

  • Continued Mughal campaigns, especially in the Deccan (annexed Ahmednagar).
  • Faced rebellions (e.g., Bundelas under Jujhar Singh).
  • Lost Qandahar to the Safavids.
  • His reign is considered the Golden Age of Mughal Architecture (Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, Red Fort in Delhi).
  • Fell ill in 1657, leading to a brutal War of Succession among his sons (Dara Shukoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb, Murad Bakhsh).
  • Imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in Agra Fort until his death.

• Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707):

  • Emerged victorious in the war of succession. Executed Dara Shukoh.
  • Expanded the empire to its largest extent, annexing Bijapur (1685) and Golconda (1686).
  • Faced numerous rebellions:
    • Ahoms in the north-east (initially defeated them but they rebelled again).
    • Sikhs under Guru Tegh Bahadur (executed by Aurangzeb) and Guru Gobind Singh.
    • Jats and Satnamis in North India.
    • Marathas under Shivaji Maharaj: A major challenge. Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji, who escaped from Agra and continued resistance. Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his reign primarily in the Deccan fighting the Marathas, draining the imperial treasury.
  • Reimposed Jizya (tax on non-Muslims).
  • His policies and constant warfare weakened the empire, contributing to its decline after his death in 1707.

3. Mughal Traditions of Succession:

• The Mughals did not believe in primogeniture (where the eldest son inherits the father's estate).
• They followed the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance (a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons).
• This often led to conflict and rebellion among brothers vying for the throne (e.g., the war of succession during Shah Jahan's reign).

4. Mughal Relations with Other Rulers (Especially Rajputs):

• Mughals campaigned constantly against rulers who refused their authority.
• However, many rulers joined them voluntarily. The Rajputs are a notable example.
• Rajput Policy:
  • Many Rajput houses married their daughters into Mughal families (e.g., the mother of Jahangir was a Kachhwaha princess of Amber/modern Jaipur; the mother of Shah Jahan was a Rathor princess of Marwar/Jodhpur).
  • Rajputs were appointed to high positions in the Mughal administration (Mansabdars).
  • They were allowed to retain considerable autonomy over their homelands (watan) as assignments (watan jagirs).
• This careful balance allowed Mughals to extend their influence widely.
• However, some resisted fiercely (e.g., the Sisodiya Rajputs of Mewar refused Mughal authority for a long time).
• Aurangzeb's policies and actions (like insulting Shivaji) strained relations with groups like the Marathas.

5. Administration: Mansabdars and Jagirdars:

• As the empire expanded, Mughals recruited diverse groups (Iranians, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas) into service. Those who joined were enrolled as mansabdars.
• Mansabdar: An individual holding a mansab (meaning a position or rank).
• Mansabdari System: A grading system used by the Mughals to fix:
  1. Rank
  2. Salary
  3. Military responsibilities
• Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat. Higher the zat, the more prestigious the noble’s position and the larger his salary.
• Military responsibility was indicated by sawar, specifying the number of cavalrymen the mansabdar had to maintain.
• Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs, which were somewhat like iqtas.
• Jagirdars: Holders of jagirs. They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments, collected by their servants while the mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country. They did not administer the jagir itself.
• Changes: During Akbar's reign, jagirs were carefully assessed so salaries roughly equalled revenue. By Aurangzeb's time, there was a huge increase in mansabdars and a shortage of jagirs (bejaghiri). This led to jagirdars trying to extract maximum revenue, causing peasant hardship.

6. Revenue System: Zabt and Zamindars:

• The main source of income was tax on the produce of the peasantry.
• Zamindars: A term used by Mughals for all intermediaries, whether local headmen or powerful chieftains, who collected taxes.
• Zabt System: The main revenue system, refined during Akbar's reign with the help of his Revenue Minister, Raja Todar Mal.
  • Based on a survey of crop yields, prices, and areas cultivated for a 10-year period (1570-1580).
  • Tax was fixed on each crop in cash.
  • Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates (dastur) for individual crops.
• This system required careful surveying and was prevalent where Mughal administration could reach; less effective in areas like Gujarat and Bengal.
• In some areas, zamindars became very powerful. Exploitation by Mughal administrators or high taxes could drive peasants and zamindars to rebel, sometimes challenging the stability of the empire (especially towards the end of the 17th century).

7. Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari:

• Important sources for understanding Akbar's reign.
• Akbar commissioned Abul Fazl, his close friend and courtier, to write a history of his reign.
• Akbar Nama: Written in three volumes.
  • First volume: Akbar’s ancestors.
  • Second volume: Events of Akbar’s reign.
  • Third volume: Ain-i Akbari.
• Ain-i Akbari: Provides rich details about Akbar’s administration, household, army, revenue system, and the geography of his empire. It also includes details about the traditions and cultures of the people living in India, along with statistical information on crops, yields, prices, wages, and revenues.

8. Akbar’s Policies - A Closer Look:

• Administration:
  • Empire divided into provinces called subas, governed by a subadar (handled both political and military functions).
  • Each province had a financial officer or diwan.
  • Other key provincial officials: bakhshi (military paymaster), sadr (minister for religion and charitable patronage), faujdars (military commanders), and kotwal (town police commander).
• Religious Policy - Sulh-i Kul:
  • Akbar was deeply interested in religion and philosophy.
  • Held discussions with scholars of different faiths (Ulemas, Brahmins, Jesuit priests, Zoroastrians, Jains) in the ibadat khana (Hall of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri.
  • These discussions led him to the idea of sulh-i kul or "universal peace".
  • This idea focused on tolerance among different religions and stressed universal values like honesty, justice, and peace.
  • Abul Fazl helped Akbar frame this vision of governance, which was also followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Aurangzeb deviated significantly from this policy.

9. The Mughal Empire in the 17th Century and After:

• The Mughal administrative and military efficiency brought great economic and commercial prosperity. International travelers described India's wealth.
• However, immense wealth existed alongside stark poverty. The huge salaries and incomes of mansabdars were spent, benefiting artisans and peasants who supplied goods, but leaving little for investment by primary producers.
• Decline:
  • Aurangzeb's successors (Later Mughals) were weak and inefficient.
  • The power of mansabdars increased. Governors (subadars) and powerful zamindars consolidated authority in different regions, creating independent kingdoms (like Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal) though they often symbolically acknowledged the Mughal emperor.
  • Continuous warfare, peasant rebellions, the jagirdari crisis, weak rulers, and the rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats) led to the gradual disintegration of the empire through the 18th century.
  • By 1857, Mughal rule was effectively confined to a small area around Delhi, ending completely after the Revolt of 1857.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs):

1. Who was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India?
   (a) Humayun
   (b) Akbar
   (c) Babur
   (d) Sher Shah Suri

2. The First Battle of Panipat (1526) was fought between:
   (a) Babur and Rana Sanga
   (b) Babur and Ibrahim Lodi
   (c) Akbar and Hemu
   (d) Humayun and Sher Shah Suri

3. The Mughal system of rank, salary, and military responsibility was known as:
   (a) Zabt system
   (b) Jagirdari system
   (c) Mansabdari system
   (d) Subadari system

4. Akbar's revenue minister, who refined the 'Zabt' system, was:
   (a) Abul Fazl
   (b) Bairam Khan
   (c) Raja Man Singh
   (d) Raja Todar Mal

5. The term 'Sulh-i Kul', promoted by Akbar, refers to:
   (a) Absolute monarchy
   (b) Universal peace and tolerance
   (c) A new system of taxation
   (d) Division of the empire among sons

6. Which Mughal emperor's reign is often considered the 'Golden Age of Mughal Architecture'?
   (a) Akbar
   (b) Jahangir
   (c) Shah Jahan
   (d) Aurangzeb

7. The 'Ain-i Akbari', part of the 'Akbar Nama', was written by:
   (a) Akbar
   (b) Todar Mal
   (c) Abul Fazl
   (d) Faizi

8. Which Mughal emperor faced significant challenges from the Marathas under Shivaji Maharaj and spent the last years of his reign in the Deccan?
   (a) Shah Jahan
   (b) Jahangir
   (c) Akbar
   (d) Aurangzeb

9. Mughals followed the Timurid custom of succession known as:
   (a) Primogeniture
   (b) Coparcenary inheritance
   (c) Matrilineal succession
   (d) Election by nobles

10. What was a 'Jagir' in the Mughal administration?
    (a) A military rank
    (b) A tax collected from non-Muslims
    (c) A revenue assignment given as salary to Mansabdars
    (d) The emperor's personal land

Answer Key for MCQs:

1. (c) Babur
2. (b) Babur and Ibrahim Lodi
3. (c) Mansabdari system
4. (d) Raja Todar Mal
5. (b) Universal peace and tolerance
6. (c) Shah Jahan
7. (c) Abul Fazl
8. (d) Aurangzeb
9. (b) Coparcenary inheritance
10. (c) A revenue assignment given as salary to Mansabdars

Make sure you revise these notes thoroughly. Understanding the administrative systems like Mansabdari and Zabt, and policies like Sulh-i-Kul, is very important. Good luck with your preparation!